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LIBRARY 

OF  THE  LV 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  i 

GIFT  OF 

GEORGE  MOREY  RICHARDSON. 

Received,  August,  1898. 
^Accession  No./^  ^  //       Class  No. 


fcflrei^JiH!^^ 


•  HE 

[TJNIVEBSITY 


YOUNG    LADY'S    BOOK: 


MANUAL 


ELEGANT  RECREATIONS,  EXERCISES, 


SECOND     EDITION. 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED    BY    CARTER,   HENDEE    AND    BABCOCK, 
AND    ABEL    BOWEN. 


-f  - : 


BOSTON: 

BOWEN'S   XYLOORAPHIC 
WATER   STREET. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

THE  CABINET  COUNCIL 9 

L'OUVERTURE      .......  21 

MORAL  DEPORTMENT         ......  23 

THE  FLORIST 33 

MINERALOGY             .......  61 

CONCHOLOGY        ......".  85 

ENTOMOLOGY              .......  115 

THE  AVIARY 183 

THE  TOILET .          .279 

EMBROIDERY        .......  291 

THE  ESCRUTOIRE     .......  313 

PAINTING     ........  347 

Music       .........  365 

DANCING 395 

ARCHERY 419 

RIDING         .......  427 

THE  ORNAMENTAL  ARTIST         ....  459 

L'ADIEU       .                   505 


Embellishments. 


Page 

Engraved  by  A.  Bow  en.        1 
.     .     .     .     Boiccn.         1 
Bowen.        9 


L'OUVERTURE    . 
MORAL  DEPORTMENT  . 


FRONTISPIECE    .    .    .    .  A  Boudoir    .    .     . 

ORNAMENTAL  TITLE 

THE  CABINET  COUNCIL  The  Announcement  , 

Allegorical  Coterie  of  Contributors  ....     Bowen.  20 

.  The  Casket  Bearers,  and  Casket  opened      .    Bowen.  21 

.  Crowning  the  Rosiere    ........    Bowen.  23 

Religious  Emblems     ....    .....    Bowen.  32 

.  The  gathered  Rose     .........    Bowen.  33 

Proserpine  culling  Flowers      ......    Bowen.  33 

Ophelia     ...........    A.  Hartwcll.  60 

.  Vanity  and  Science    .......  A.  Anderson.  61 

Aladdin  in  the  Cave       .......     Anderson.  84 

CONCHOLOGY  .....  The  Student's  Grotto    .    .    .    Hartwell  and  Bowen.  85 

The  Naiad  ............    Bowen,  114 

.  The  Ant  and  the  Sluggard  .......    Bowen.  115 

Infant  Entomologists      .......    Anderson.  182 

.  A  Visit  to  the  Aviary     .    -     ......    Bowen.  183 

The  Judge  casting  forth  the  Dove,  which  took  refuge 

in  his  bosom  from  a  Hawk   .....    Bowen.  183 

Children  in  the  Wood    ........    Bowen.  278 

.  Belinda  at  her  Toilet      .......    Hctrtwell.  279 

Attiring  the  Bride  .........    Anderson.  279 

Eve  at  the  Fountain      .......    Anderson.  290 

.  Feats  of  Chivalry  embroidered  by  Ladies   "in  the 

olden  time"   .........     Anderson.  291 

Minerva  and  Arachne   .....     J.  C.  Crosman.  312 

.  Lord  Russell's  Cabinet;  Lady  Russell  acting  as  his 

Secretary  ...........    Bowen.  313 

Persian  Girl  attaching  a  symbolical   Bouquet    to   a 

Pigeon  ............    Bowen.  346 

PAINTING     ......  Mary   Beale   painting   the   Portrait    of    Archbishop 

Tillotson   ...........    Bowen,  347 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  Macaw  attacking  a  Portrait 
of  a  Maid-Servant,  to  whom  the  Bird  had   an 

antipathy    ..........    Anderson.  364 

MUSIC  ........  Music  and  the  Passions    .......    Anderson.  365 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  her  Secretary  .     Hartwell.  394 

DANCING  .......  An  Al-fresco  Fete  ..........    Bowen.  395 

The  Pas-de-deux    .....  Bowen  and  Hartwell.  395 

The  Bolero    ............     Bowen.  407 

May-day  Festival  .........    Anderson.  418 

ARCHERY     .».-...  Old-English   Baron,    attended    by  a  Dwarf  Page, 
instructing   his    Daughters    in    the   use    of   the 
Bow  ..........     •     .     .    Bowen. 

Robin  Hood  and  Maid  Marian     .....    Bowen. 

Shooting  at  the  Target   .......    Anderson. 


THE  FLORIST  . 


MINERALOGY 


ENTOMOLOGY 


THE  AVIARY 


THE  TOILET 


EMBROIDERY. 


THE  ESCRUTOIRE 


Diana  and  her  Nymphs  ......     •     .    Bowen 

RIDING      .....     •    .  A  Lady  on  Horseback,  with  her  Falcon    .    Anderson. 

Elizabeth  haranguing  her  Troops      ....    Bowen. 

Titania  on  the  Horse-fly     .......    Bowen. 

ORNAMENTAL  ARTIST  .  Hon.  Anne  Seymour  Darner  in  her  Studio  .   Anderson. 

Birth-day  Offerings       .........    Bowen.    504 

L'ADIEU  ......      The  Salaam  and  Regret  at  Parting  ....    Bowen.    505 


419 
419 
421 
426 
427 
427 
458 
459 


PREFACE 

TO    THE   AMERICAN   EDITION. 


THE  common  sense  of  our  day  and  country,  enlightened  by  the 
experience  of  the  past,  has  determined,  that  woman's  happiness  as 
well  as  her  sphere  of  usefulness  will  be  enlarged,  in  proportion  to 
her  opportunities  for  cultivating  the  powers  with  which  nature  has 
endowed  her:  —  and  the  female  mind  is  acknowledged  to  possess 
all  the  faculties,  and  to  be  capable  of  like  improvements,  with  that 
of  man.  Hence  it  is  now,  and  cannot  cease  to  be>  fashionable  to 
unite  in  the  course  of  female  studies,  all  that  is  practically  useful 
in  the  sciences  with  all  that  is  beautiful  in  the  arts.  Such  are  the 
characteristics  of  this  volume;  combining  a  distinct  chart  of  the 
useful  and  ornamental  departments  of  a  lady's  education. 

The  subjects  having  been  confided  to  authors  who  were  pro- 
ficients in  their  several  departments,  its  contents  are  the  results  of 
patient  investigation;  and  from  its  entire  novelty  of  character,  and 
difficulty  of  execution,  the  book  was  a  long  time  in  preparation. 
It  was  neither  the  offspring  of  caprice  nor  of  speculation,  and  its 
lasting  value  can  only  be  affected  by  new  discoveries  in  the  course 
of  scientific  investigation.  Instead  of  being  an  Annual  flower, 
to  bloom  and  be  forgotten,  it  aspires  to  be  a  PERENNIAL  —  an 
Evergreen,  that  shall  form  a  suitable  memorial  for  all  seasons 
and  at  all  times. 

A  desire  to  make  improvement  in  the  arts  in  this  country, 
perhaps,  has  had  its  share  of  influence  in  producing  this  edition 
of '  The  Young  Lady's  Book.'  But  aside  from  this,  it  is  believed 


PREFACE. 

the  intrinsic  value  of  the  work,  attested  by  the  high  encomiums 
which  have  been  bestowed  on  it,  by  the  first  literary  judges,  together 
with  the  unprecedented  success  with  which  it  has  been  attended  in 
England,  are  sufficient  recommendations  to  warrant  its  publication. 

In  reprinting  such  a  work,  it  could  not  be  expected  to  equal  the 
original;  for  it  is  said,  and  perhaps  truly,  of  the  English  copy,  that 
'  a  few  years  ago,  all  the  talents  in  England  could  not  have  pro- 
duced such  a  work.'  Still,  it  is  hoped,  this  edition  will  not  be 
found  far  inferior,  nor  be  the  less  acceptable  in  the  United  States 
from  having  been  the  work  entirely  of  American  Artists,  and  com- 
posed of  materials  almost  exclusively  of  American  origin  and 
manufacture. 

Having  superintended  this  edition  and  directed  the  processes 
necessary  to  its  completion,  I  may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  say  some- 
thing of  the  printing  and  embellishments.  The  illustrations,  in  the 
English  copy,  were  designed  by  Harvey,  and  the  engravings  exe- 
cuted on  wood  by  Branston,  Wright,  Thompson,  Williams,  and 
other  eminent  artists;  and  the  whole  work  was  printed  by  Messrs. 
Vizetelly,  Branston  and  Co.  in  a  style  of  delicacy  that  will  be  the 
means  of  bringing  into  notice  a  novelty  in  the  xylographic  art,  as 
connected  with  the  typographic.  The  embellishments  in  this  edition 
have  been  perfected  and  printed  by  a  method  entirely  new  in  this 
country,  and  the  result  of  much  thought  and  experiment.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  great  care  has  been  taken  to  follow 
the  original  in  every  point,  so  that  the  copy  might  be  considered 
a  perfect  facsimile.  The  names  of  die  Artists  who  have  been 
engaged  in  producing  the  work  will  be  learned  from  the  list  of 
principal  embellishments. 

ABEL  BO  WEN. 

BOSTON,  October,  1830. 


YOUNG    LADY'S     BOOK. 


(EoutuU, 

fe  EATED  in  front  of  a  splendid  specimen  of  the  ingenuity  of  the 
Chinese, — a  gilt  and  richly  inlaid  table,  covered  with  a  variety  of 
beautiful  minerals,  shells,  and  articles  of  virtu, — the  Editor,  after 
having  been  duly  announced  by  Prudence,  her  bower-woman, 
found  his  cousin  Penelope,  on  his  entrance  into  Lady  Mary's 
brilliant  boudoir.  Lady  Mary  was  standing  attired  for  a  ride, 
near  her  fair  kinswoman ;  and  Aunt  Elinor,  the  very  pearl  of  the 
ancient  sisterhood  of  spinsters,  entered  the  apartment  before  the 
usual  greetings  were  concluded. 

"  Your  cousin,  young  ladies,"  said  Aunt  Elinor,  "  wishes  to 
look  round  Lady  Mary's  boudoir  again,  to  see  if  anything  has 
escaped  his  notice." 

This  was  a  very  mysterious  announcement.  Lady  Mary, 
after  looking  earnestly,  first  at  her  aunt,  and  then  at  Penelope, 
as  if  she  were  desirous  of  reading  an  explanation  in  their  eyes, 
exclaimed:  "Escaped  his  notice,  aunt!  I  cannot  conceive  what 
you  mean." 


10  THE    CABINET    COUNCIL. 

"  Why,  it  would  seem,  child,"  was  the  old  lady's  reply,  "  that 
the  arrangement  and  decorations  of  your  boudoir,  have,  in  some 
degree,  attracted  his  admiration ;  although,  for  my  own  part,  to 
speak  candidly, — and  you  know  I  love  you  equally, — Penelope's 
seems  to  me  by  far  the  more  preferable  of  the  two;  indeed,  with 
one  or  two  alterations,  it  might  be  pronounced  perfect." 

"  The  fault  of  Penelope's  boudoir,"  said  Lady  Mary,  "  is  su- 
perlative neatness:  it  looks  as  prim  as  herself;  casting  a  glance 
round  it,  your  first  feeling  of  admiration  at  its  order,  is  subdued 
in  an  instant,  by  a  disagreeable  conviction  of  the  pains  it  must  have 
cost  her  to  drill  her  little  squadrons  of  embellishments  so  as  to 
produce  such  an  effect.  My  dear  Pen!  you  may  smile,  but  you 
are  positively  as  precise  as  a  mathematician :  old  Euclid  seems  to 
have  been  school-master  to  the  Graces  who  preside  at  your  toilet. 
But,  would  you  believe  it!  **  added  the  lively  Lady  Mary,  turning 
to  the  Editor,  "  notwithstanding  she  dresses  in  drab,  and  looks 
demure,  Cousin  Penelope,  Sir,  I  can  assure  you,  is  as  brilliant  as 
possible  on  a  birth-day;  for  when  she  does  condescend  to  be 
splendid,  I  must  confess,  that  few,  if  any  of  us,  eclipse  her." 

"  Yet  allow  me  to  remark,"  said  Penelope,  "  that  the  rich  and 
profuse  negligence  which  reigns  in  your  boudoir  is  the  result  of 
thrice  the  toil  that  I  have  employed  in  decorating  mine." 

"  That  is  true  enough,  Penelope,"  said  Lady  Mary,  while  a 
slight  blush  tinged  her  cheek;  "but  the  toil  you  speak  of  is  not 
apparent.  I  look  upon  my  boudoir  (pardon  the  comparison)  as 
upon  a  fine  picture,  in  which  those  splendid  dashes  of  light,  which 
charm  us, — those  fine  touches  of  brilliant  beauty  that  seem  to  fall 
from  a  mass  of  foliage  to  gild  the  bold  edge  of  a  ruin,  and  finally 
descend  to  illumine  and  ennoble  a  daisy, — appear  to  have  been  the 
work  of  a  moment;" — 

"  Or,  to  help  you  with  a  more  high-flown  simile,  Lady  Mary," 
said  her  cousin,  who  was  now  turning  over  a  portfolio  of  engrav- 
ings, "  they  seem  to  have  been  produced  by  the  Muse  of  Painting, 
at  a  single  dash  of  her  brush  newly  dipped  in  the  fountain  of 
light!" 

"  And  yet,"  continued  Lady  Mary,  smiling  at  Penelope" 
simile,  "  they  are,  in  fact,  produced  only  by  labour,  both  of  the 
mind  and  the  hand.  This  apparent  carelessness  of  arrangement 
has,  I  admit,  cost  me  considerable  pains;  but  everybody  admires 
the  effect,  because  the  art  which  produced  it  is  concealed.  Here, 
for  instance,  in  this  recess,  is  a  beautiful  cabinet  picture, — a  charm- 
ing landscape,  partly  veiled,  but  not  hidden,  by  a  common,  but. 


THE   CABINET   COUNCIL.  11 

in  my  opinion,  remarkably  elegant  creeping-plant,  which  extends 
far  enough  round  the  corner  to  twine  about  the  carved  ebony 
frame,  and  festoon  the  polished  surface  of  an  old-fashioned  glass, 
which  I  prize  because  it  was  my  grandmamma's:  here  again,  you 
may  perceive  it  wandering  downward,  and  encircling  a  fossil;  on 
the  other  side  of  the  window  it  has  attached  its  tendrils  to  a  tall 
and  stately  exotic,  and  droops  from  its  topmost  flower  to  garland 
a  Greek  vase.  Now,  although  this  appears  to  be  all  the  result  of 
pure  accident,  Penelope,  who  is  smiling  at  my  comparison,  will 
tell  you,  'twas  I  that  did  it.  And  do  not  imagine,  I  pray,  that 
everything  here  is  in  such  a  chaotic  jumble  as  to  be  inconvenient ; 
there  is,  in  fact,  order  in  its  seeming  confusion;  I  have  a  clue  to 
the  labyrinth,  and  can  find  a  book  or  a  butterfly  in  my  boudoir 
quite  as  soon  as  Miss  Penelope  can  in  hers.  Candidly  speaking, 
which  do  you  prefer  1 " 

"  To  me,"  replied  the  Editor,  to  whom  this  question  was 
addressed,  "  they  appear  to  be  exquisite  specimens  of  the  different 
styles  to  which  they  belong.  Like  every  other  boudoir  that  I 
have  seen  (although  all  bear  a  faint  sort  of  family  resemblance 
to  each  other,)  each  is  apparently  embellished  according  to  the 
judgment  of  its  fair  owner,  of  whose  taste  and  habits  it  might  be 
taken  as  a  symbol." 

"  That  is  precisely  as  I  think,**  remarked  Penelope 
"Then,  my  dear,"  replied  Lady  Mary,  "notwithstanding 
your  reputed  wisdom,  I  must  respectfully  submit, — as  I  am  told 
the  lawyers  say,  when  they  contradict  the  court, — that  you  are 
partially  in  error.  Of  a  lady'g  taste,  her  boudoir  may  sometimes, 
but  not  always,  be  a  visible  criterion.  She  may  possess  the  taste 
of  one  of  those  select  few,  on  whom  Apollo  has  shaken  a  dew- 
drop  from  his  laurel,  and  yet  have  as  little  means  of  gratifying 
it  as  poor  Cinderella,  before  she  had  a  little  fairy  glass-blower 
for  a  shoemaker :  she  may  also  be  gifted  with  pure  taste  in  an 
equal  degree,  and  have  a  kind  Croesus  for  a  relative  to  allow 
her  an  unlimited  account  at  Coutts's,  and  yet  be  possessed  with 
a  sister  sprite  to  that  which  nestled  in  the  heart  of  an  Elwes  or 
a  Dancer.  That  a  boudoir  is  not  always  a  proof  of  the  habits 
of  its  owner,  I  positively  confess  mine  to  be  an  instance : — those 
specimens  of  minerals  are  very  rare  and  valuable, — at  least,  so 
says  Penelope, — but  they  never  struck  me  as  being  beautiful,  and 
she  knows  I  am  little  more  acquainted  with  Mineralogy,  than 
with  the  grammar  of  the  Moslems.  But  to  waive  the  question 
as  to  the  superiority  of  Penelope's  boudoir  to  mine,  or  mine  to 


12  THE   CABINET   COUNCIL. 

hers,  allow  me  to  ask,  why  my  grave  cousin,  who  sits  smiling  at 
our  debate,  is  so  anxious  that  nothing  in  my  pet  apartment  should 
escape  his  notice  1 " 

"  I  will  endeavour  to  satisfy  you  on  that  point,"  said  the  Editor. 
"  About  two  years  ago,  while  seated  in  this  identical  chair,  I 
conceived  the  idea  of  producing  and  publishing  a  work  that  should 
be  deemed  worthy  of  the  acceptance  of  every  young  lady  in  the 
kingdom." — 

"  I  hope  you  do  not  intend  to  inflict  another  Annual  upon  us," 
said  Penelope. 

"By  no  means,"  replied  the  Editor;  "so  far  from  following 
the  beautiful,  but  much-beaten  track  of  my  predecessors,  it  is  my 
intention  to  offer  the  present-giving  public  a  PERENNIAL, — an 
evergreen,  that  will  not  be  merely  looked  at  and  laid  aside  for- 
ever, but  will  attract  notice  and  merit  attention  at  all  times  and 
at  all  seasons; — not  such  a  mere  bouquet  of  flowers  as,  however 
rare  or  beautiful,  seldom  tempt  their  warmest  admirers  to  a  second 
inspection,  and  which  are  always  dethroned,  even  if  they  hold 
their  ephemeral  sway  for  a  year,  by  other  blossoms,  presented  by 
the  same  hands,  at  the  return  of  the  book-budding  season;" — 

"  But,"  interrupted  Aunt  Elinor,  with  more  enthusiasm  than 
usually  beamed  on  her  placid  countenance, — "  to  drop  my  nephew's 
flowery  metaphors, — a  volume  which,  although  rich  in  beautiful 
embellishments,  shall  be  so  useful  and  instructive,  as  well  as 
amusing,  that  it  will,  in  all  probability,  be  as  often  in  the  hands  of 
every  young  lady  of  sense  who  possesses  it,  three  or  four  years 
hence,  as  within  a  month  after  its  publication." 

"  That  is  exactly  my  meaning,"  said  the  Editor,  looking 
gratefully  towards  Aunt  Elinor;  "and  I  sincerely  trust  I  have 
been  fortunate  enough  to  accomplish  so  desirable  an  object." 

"  And  pray,  cousin,"  inquired  Penelope,  "  what  is  the  book  to 
contain^" 

"  If  you  require  a  view  of  the  contents,"  replied  the  Editor, 
"I  have  only  to  say,  look  around  you! — Lady  Mary's  boudoir 
would  form  a  very  good  index  to  the  volume,  and  present  a 
capital  epitome  of  a  young  lady's  best  pursuits,  exercises,  and 
recreations.  Flora  has  here  a  number  of  living  representatives ; 
Gnomes,  in  bronze,  seem  to  bend  beneath  the  weight  of  the  mine- 
rals which  are  placed  upon  their  shoulders ;  a  sea-maid,  with  her 
conch,  illumines  the  apartment  when  '  Night  hath  drawn  her 
veil  o'er  earth  and  sea ; '  the  insect  world  is  represented  by  groups 
of  Oriental  beetles,  and  splendid  butterflies ;  the  humming-bird  is 


THE    CABINET    COUNCIL.  13 

here,  with  many  other  of  his  fellow-tenants  of  the  air,  making  all 
around  them  look  dim  by  the  metallic  lustre  of  their  plumage: — 
all  these  remind  me  of  sciences  which  are  applicable  to  the  study 
of  young  ladies ; — I  have  made  a f  prief  of  it  in  my  note-book ; '  and 
introductory  papers  on  Botany,  Mineralogy,  Conchology,  Orni- 
thology, and  Entomology,  have  been  the  consequence.3' 

"  Then  there  is  some  probability, — as,  of  course,  I  shall  have 
the  work," — said  Lady  Mary,  "  that  ere  long  I  may  know  some- 
thing of  two  sciences,  of  which,  although  they  are  represented  in 
my  boudoir,  I  am  now  altogether  ignorant." 

"  One  of  them,  I  know,"  said  Penelope,  "  is  Mineralogy;  and 
I  must  confess,  it  surprises  me  that  it  should  never  have  attracted 
your  favourable  notice.  If  minerals  were  only  to  be  seen  in  mines," 
she  continued,  "  it  would  be  a  different  case ;  but  they  have,  for 
years,  been  mutely  pleading  to  you  in  their  own  behalf:  they  meet 
your  view  on  all  sides;  many  of  them  even  in  a  native  state.  They 
contribute  essentially  to  our  comfort,  and  add  to  our  splendour: 
they  embellish  the  lofty  domes  and  high  places  which  are  the  pride 
of  our  country,  and  passively  contribute  to  its  defence :  they  adorn 
our  parlours  and  our  persons :  some  of  them  are  almost  indispens- 
able even  to  the  cottager's  wife ;  while  others  sit  enthroned  on  the 
brows  of  royal  beauty,  exceeding  all  beneath  '  the  Lady  Luna  and 
her  silvery  train '  in  brilliancy,  and  equalling  the  chaplet  with 
which  Flora  would  bedeck  herself,  in  richness  and  variety  of  hue ; 
and  although  they  possess  not  the  fragrance  of  the  rose-bud,  nor 
the  graceful  form  of  the  lily,  their  durability  exalts  them  to  a 
higher  value  than  that  of  the  most  lovely  flower  that  basks  in  the 
noontide  ray,  or  blooms  in  the  shade.  The  snowdrop  melts  away 
almost  as  soon  as  the  white  mantle  that  covers  its  birth-place ; 
the  violet  delights  our  eye  in  the  morning,  and  is  withered  by 
sunset;  the  queen  of  flowers  endures  but  for  a  brief  period,  and 
there  are  few  of  her  subjects  hardy  enough  to  bear  the  scorching 
glance  of  a  summer  sun,  and  the  chill  breath  of  winter:  but  a 
diamond  endures  for  ages,  and  is  brilliant  and  beautiful  at  all 
times  and  in  all  seasons ;  the  ruby  outlives  a  thousand  generations 
of  roses;  and  the  holly  and  the  laurel  are  ephemeral,  compared 
with  the  emerald." 

Lady  Mary  was  rather  surprised  at  the  unusual  enthusiasm  of 
Penelope;  without,  however,  waiting  to  make  any  remark  upon 
her  cousin's  poetical  style  of  speaking,  she  placed  her  hand  upon 
Penelope's  bracelet,  and  begged  to  interrupt  her  oration  in  favour 
of  the  mineral  world  for  a  few  moments,  by  offering  a  short  plea 


14  THE    CABINET    COUNCIL. 

on  behalf  of  the  subjects  of  Flora.  "  You  must,  I  am  sure,"  said 
she,  "  however  warmly  you  may  be  attached  to  your  pet  science, 
allow,  that  flowers  have  one  great  advantage  over  minerals : — the 
latter  are  dead,  but  flowers  live.  We  can  sow  their  seeds,  and 
watch  them  breaking  through  the  earth,  and  rear  them  into  beauty 
and  perfection.  We  have  sympathies  in  their  favour:  they  languish 
beneath  intense  heat,  and  are  chilled  by  the  cold  easterly  blast; 
they  flourish  for  a  time,  and  then  fade  away  like  ourselves:  but 
the  gem  dies  not:  its  duration,  for  ought  we  know,  may  reach 
to  the  extent  of  time.  Some  may  admire  it  for  its  beauty,  and 
others  doat  upon  or  covet  it  for  its  value ;  but  it  has  never  that 
pure  hold  on  our  affections  which  the  flower  we  nourish  possesses. 
Besides,  there  are  thousands  of  delightful  associations  connected 
with  flowers  and  shrubs.  The  imagination  of  the  painter,  or  the 
poet,  never  conceived  a  more  exquisite  picture  of  beauty  than  the 
dove  of  the  ark  gliding  towards  Ararat  with  the  olive-branch,  over 
the  still,  solitary,  measureless  surface  of  the  waters,  gazing  down 
upon  its  own  shadow,  and  listening  to  the  music  made  by  its  own 
wings.  Lectures  on  history,  manners,  or  even  mythology,  might 
be  given  with  no  text  but  a  leaf  or  a  flower.  With  a  white  and 
red  rose  before  him,  the  historian  might  comment  upon  the  old 
English  wars  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster ;  a  bouquet 
of  Eastern  flowers  would  recall  to  the  traveller's  memory  some 
dark-eyed  maiden  of  Persia,  whom  he  had  seen  committing  to  the 
charge  of  a  pigeon, — swiftest  of  messengers, — a  billet  composed  of 
buds, — the  accepted  symbols,  in  her  father-land,  of  hope,  joy,  grief, 
reproach,  or  affection ;  and  the  humble  daisy  of  the  mead  might 
give  a  hint  to  those  learned  in  antique  lore,  to  depict  Proserpine 
gathering  flowers  in  the  vales  of  Sicily,  unconscious  of  the  ap- 
proach of  gloomy  Dis :  a  good  homily,  too,  might  be  written  upon 
a  violet." 

"  What  you  have  said  is  very  true,  Lady  Mary,"  replied  her 
cousin ;  "  but  the  mineral  has  also  its  associations :  it  possesses  a 
greater  individuality  of  interest,  in  this  respect,  than  the  flower. 
You  may  show  me  a  rose  of  the  same  species  as  those  worn  by  the 
princely  Plantagenets,  but  it  is  not  the  same  rose.  The  flower 
perishes  before  the  hand  that  gathers  it  is  cold ;  but  the  mineral's 
duration  affords  scope  for  the  imagination  to  roam  as  far  as  the 
border-land  of  the  probable  and  the  possible.  The  wise  may 
smile  at  me  for  indulging  the  feeling,  or  making  the  confession, 
but  I  have  often  detected  something  akin  to  awe  creeping 
over  me  when  gazing  upon  a  gem : — it  may  have  sparkled  on  the 


THE    CABINET    COUNCIL.  15 

arm  of  Cleopatra,  as  she  sailed  down  the  Cydnus;  or  enriched  the 
crown  of  Semiramis,  or  the  girdle  of  a  Ptolemy;  or  been  worn 
by  the  Theban  mummy  that  was  embalmed  three  thousand  years 
ago,  and  after  that  immensity  of  time,  is  brought  to  revisit  the 
glimpses  of  the  moon,  to  be  gazed  and  wondered  at  by  those 
who  have  been,  comparatively  speaking,  but  just  ushered  into  life. 
It  may  be,  I  have  thought,  when  looking  at  an  amethyst,  that 
thou  wert  once  contemplated  by  Pliny,  and  wilt  be  looked  upon,  a 
thousand  years  hence,  by  some  one  abiding  in  what  are  now  the 
wilds  of  the  New  World,  but  then  the  heart  of  a  populous  city, 
and  the  mistress  of  the  earth,  with  feelings  precisely  similar  to 
my  own!  And  what  a  harvest  of  rich  recollections  may  be  ga- 
thered from  the  sight  of  a  suite  of  family  diamonds!  At  how  many 
birth-days  have  they  been  admired!  How  many  brows  have  they 
adorned!  The  hoops  and  furbelows  with  which  they  were  once 
accompanied ;  the  myriads  of  fashions, — nay,  whole  generations  of 
their  wearers, — have  passed  away,  and  are  forgotten ;  their  names 
are  only  found  on  musty  parchments,  pedigrees,  or  monuments : 
but  the  diamonds  are  the  same ;  brilliant  as  ever,  they  mock  their 
transient  wearers  by  their  durability, — sparkling  on  the  bosom  of 
the  Lady  Jane  of  to-day,  as  they  will,  in  all  probability,  sparkle 
on  the  brow,  the  wrist,  or  the  zone,  of  some  equally  young  and 
admired  Lady  Jane,  some  centuries  to  come.  They  have  been 
in  a  side-box  when  Garrick  played  Richard,  and  will  be  worn,  it 
may  be,  at  the  performance  of  some  Cherokee  Roscius  a  thousand 
years  hence." 

"  Why,  Pen!"  said  Lady  Mary,  almost  staring  at  her  cousin, 
"  I  never  heard  you  talk  at  this  rate,  and  in  this  style,  before. 
What  has  possessed  you!  " 

"  Simply  a  desire  to  make  a  fellow-student.  I  have  merely 
adopted  your  own  manner,  because  I  thought  it  would  be  more 
likely  to  attract  you,  than  the  usual  plain  humdrum  level  of 
my  discourse.  You  look  as  though  you  were  astonished,  that  your 
Cousin  Pen  could  mount  the  stilts,  or  rise  into  heroics;  but,  believe 
me,  coz,  *  an  thou'lt  mouth,  I'll  rant  as  well  as  thou.5  " 

"  The  other  science,"  said  the  Editor,  "  to  which,  I  imagine, 
Lady  Mary  alluded,  is  Ornithology.  It  is  certainly  my  intention  to 
admit  the  clas.s-nuitos  of  the  humming-bird,  with  those  of  the  nau- 
tilus, the  butterfly,  the  emerald,  and  the  rose.  The  mineral  and 
vegetable  kingdoms  have  each  been  so  finely  advocated,  that  it 
would  be  superfluous  in  me  to  utter  a  sentence  in  their  favour. 
You  are  both,  I  know,  very  much  attached  to  Conchology  and 
2 


16  THE    CABINET    COUNCIL 

Entomology.  The  degree  of  eloquence  either  of  you  might  display, 
in  defence  of  those  sciences,  may  be  easily  imagined,  on  consider- 
ing for  a  moment  the  fertility  of  the  theme.  There  is  a  fine  halo 
of  poetry  in  the  imagination,  round  the  conch,  the  nautilus,  and 
the  pearl,  as  well  as  the  lily  and  the  amethyst;  and  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  insect  world  is  endowed  with  as  much  beauty  as, 
and  more  interest  than,  either  the  rose  or  the  diamond.  If  Lady 
Mary  ground  her  strongest  plea  in  favour  of  flowers  on  their 
vitality,  how  much  more  powerfully  may  we,  on  the  same  score, 
advocate  the  cause  of  the  butterfly !  There  is  nothing  so  admi- 
rable in  the  operations  of  nature,  e  within  the  bourne  of  Flora's 
reign,'  as  the  metamorphosis  of  an  insect— its  gradual  develope- 
ment  and  advance  through  various  stages  of  existence,  until  it 
emerges  from  a  tomb  constructed  by  itself,  endowed  for  the  first 
time  with  the  means  of  soaring  in  the  air.  And  what  can  the 
mineral  or  vegetable  kingdoms  afford  so  attractive  to  the  in- 
quiring mind,  as  the  singular  habits  and  instincts  of  many  insects, 
and  of  several  of  the  animals,  which,  like  *  the  hermits  of  fairy- 
land, abide  in  pearly  grottoes  on  the  shores  of  OceanusT— But 
notwithstanding  the  potent  claims  on  our  attention  of  the  insect, 
the  shell,  the  mineral,  and  the  flower,  it  is  a  matter  of  doubt 
whether  either  of  them  be  more  worthy  of  our  investigation  than 
birds.  The  forms  of  an  immense  number  of  birds  are  remarkably 
graceful ;  the  plumage  of  many  exhibits  tints  as  rich,  brilliant,  and 
diversified,  as  can  be  found  in  the  entire  range  of  animated  nature ; 
their  structure  is  various,  and,  in  all  cases,  admirably  well  adapted 
to  their  wants  and  habits.  Their  utility  to  mankind  is  obvious :  they 
afford  us  articles  of  ornament  as  well  as  of  use  i  the  plume  of  the 
ostrich  is  associated,  at  the  toilet,  with  the  flower ,  the  gem,  the 
pearl,  and  the  produce  of  the  silkworm;  to  neither  of  which  are 
we  indebted  for  such  important  benefits  as  have  been  afforded  us 
by  the  quill  of  the  goose.  The  nidification  of  many  birds  is  quite 
as  ingenious  as  that  of  insects;  their  migrations  have  attracted 
the  notice  of  philosophers  for  ages  past ;  and  their  familiarity  in  a 
domestic  state,  and  the  affection  they  display  toward  their  nestlings, 
elevate  them,  as  objects  of  human  interest,  above  all  the  other 
classes  of  creation  which  we  have  noticed." 

"  Your  remarks,"  said  Aunt  Elinor,  "  appear  to  me  to  be  very 
correct:  and  you  act  discreetly  in  suffering  Ornithology  to  occupy 
a  niche  by  the  side  of  its  sister  sciences.  Thus  far  would  I  go, 
but  no  farther." 


THE    CABINET    COUNCIL.  17 

s<  But  you  do  not,  I  trust,  mean  to  restrict  yourself  to  the 
sciences,  however  interesting  and  important  they  may  be,"  said 
Lady  Mary. 

"Certainly  not,"  replied  the  Editor;  "I  have  taken  hints  of 
your  occupations  from  the  escrutoire  which  adorns  your  table ;  and 
the  drawings,  by  your  own  hand,  which  bedeck  the  walls.  This 
rich  piece  of  ancient  tapestry,  which  is  so  beautiful,  that  one 
might  imagine  its  pattern  was  designed  by  Raphael  himself,  who 
did  not  deem  his  magic  pencil  disgraced  by  drawing  for  the  noble 
embroideress  of  olden  times;  and  yonder  specimen  of  beautiful 
lace,  executed,  perhaps,  by  the  hands  of  the  inventress  of  the 
art,  Barbara  Uttman,  the  celebrated  maiden  of  Saxony,  have  also 
afforded  me  valuable  ideas.  Believe  me,  I  have  not  overlooked 
that  excellent  bust  of  Mozart,  and  the  harp,  which  stands  in 
yonder  recess;  nor  the  oldfashioned  mirror,  a  relic,  doubtless,  of 
some  celebrated  beauty,  in  the  days  of  hoops  and  high-heeled  shoes, 
and  which  has  reminded  me  of  the  importance  of  the  Toilet." 

"  Well,  cousin,  I  positively  begin  to  feel  much  interested  in 
your  book,"  said  Lady  Mary;  "and  if  you  will  deign  to  accept  a 
compliment  from  one  so  much  younger  than  yourself,  I  admire 
your  discrimination.  But  do  not  forget  our  exercises,  I  beseech 
you!  Remember,  I  had  a  fine  cast  from  Canova's  statue  of 
Terpsichore,  although,  much  to  my  regret,  it  has  lately  met  with 
an  accident," 

"  Dancing  will,  decidedly,  have  a  place  in  the  volume,"  said 
the  Editor;  "the  work  would  be  very  incomplete  without  it." 

"  My  cousin's  Ascham, — her  bow  and  quiver, — have  also,  I 
hope,"  observed  Penelope,  "been  favoured  with  your  notice." 

"  Archery,  when  I  was  a  young  woman,"  said  Aunt  Elinor, 
"was  never  thought  of  as  a  feminine  recreation;  but  I  admit 
that  it  is  now  very  generally  patronised ;  and  having,  as  an  exer- 
cise for  the  young,  received  the  sanction  of  ladies,  whose  age  and 
character  entitle  them  to  the  utmost  respect — (Aunt  Elinor  spoke 
this  with  most  significant  emphasis,) — I  am  bound  to  approve 
of  it." 

"And  Riding,"  added  Lady  Mary,  "certainly  must  not  be 
omitted.  My  whip,  I  am  satisfied,  has  not  escaped  your  glance; 
and  my  aunt,  I  will  venture  to  say,  highly  approves  of  riding  on 
horseback." 

"It  is,  unquestionably,  beneficial  in  many  respects,"  said  Aunt 
Elinor;  " but  still  it  must  be  considered,  as  a  graceful  exercise, 
vory  inferior  to  Dancing.  The  minuet-is  matchless." 


18  THE    CABINET    COUNCIL. 

"It  seems  then  to  be  decidedly  your  opinion,  ladies,  that 
Archery,  Riding,  and  Dancing,  are  very  proper  exercises." 

"Unquestionably  so,"  said  Aunt  Elinor ;  "  and  I  may  add,  that  in 
these,  the  only  unobjectionable  parts  of  the  new  science,  which  I 
believe  is  denominated  Calisthenics,  will  be  found  in  their  greatest 
perfection." 

"The  young  ladies,  I  am  happy  to  say,"  observed  the  Editor, 
"  appear  by  their  looks  most  cordially  to  agree  with  you.  I  have, 
Aunt  Elinor,  as  you  know,  taken  counsel  on  the  subjects  with 
which  the  volume  should  be  occupied,  of  the  most  intelligent  and 
respectable  ladies,  in  every  intermediate  degree  of  age,  from  grave 
matrons  to  girls  of  fifteen ;  and  I  flatter  myself,  that  I  have  ob- 
tained much  benefit  from  their  hints,  and  shall  succeed  in  pleasing 
them  all.  That  I  have  not  consulted  my  fair  young  cousins 
befpre,  is  not  because  I  did  not  entertain  that  respect  for  their 
opinions  which  they  deserve; — it  rather  arose  from  my  desire  of 
submitting  my  plan  to  them  in  a  perfectly  mature  state,  so  that  I 
might  obtain  the  benefit  of  their  suggestions  for  its  ultimate  polish. 
It  is  gratifying  to  find,  that  those,  whose  judgment  I  respect, 
and  who  belong  to  that  class  whom  I  am  anxious  to  please,  ap- 
prove of  my  forthcoming  production ;  for  in  such  a  case  as  this, 
to  make  use  of  the  words  of  an  old  author,  « it  is  useless  to 
please  the  dowager,  unless  our  work  delighteth  the  damsel.' 
Innumerable  difficulties  presented  themselves  to  the  perfect  execu- 
tion of  my  ideas  on  the  subject: — you  will,  of  course,  imagine  that 
it  was  an  impossible  task  for  an  individual." 

"  That  I  can  readily  conceive,"  said  Lady  Mary ;  "  but  in  these 
days,  when  the  press  teems  with  new  publications,  there  surely 
can  be  no  dearth  of  authors." 

"Authors, — mere  authors, — and  even  persons  of  great  talent," 
replied  the  Editor,  "are  thick  as  the  leaves  in  Vallombrosa. 
Nothing  is  more  easy  than  to  get  up  a  volume  of  papers,  by  first- 
rate  hands,  consisting  of  passable  poetry,  amusing  or  pathetic 
talcs,  and  excellent  essays  on  men  and  manners;  because  an 
immense  number  of  coadjutors  may  be  found:  but  those,  who 
have  anything  valuable  to  communicate  in  any  of  the  depart- 
ments of  art  and  science,  are  few:  and  but  a  small  portion  of 
these  few,  however  highly  gifted  and  experienced,  have  the  power 
of  communicating  their  acquirements  by  means  of  the  press.  Even 
to  those,  who  are  practised  in  the  art  of  composition,  the  diffi- 
culty of  describing  any  practical  operation  is  almost  beyond 
belief.  Hence,  the  worth  of  a  page  from  a  scientific  writer  is 


THE    CABINET    COUNCIL.  19 

considerably  enhanced.  To  discover  persons  of  science,  or  prac- 
tical experience,  who  were  at  once  willing  and  able  to  write  on 
subjects  calculated  for  such  a  work,  has,  therefore,  been  a  much 
more  arduous  task  than  could  be  easily  imagined.  Individuals 
of  the  greatest  eminence,  have,  however,  been  successfully  sought 
out,  and  induced  to  contribute  their  assistance;  and  as  each  has 
written  only  on  that  art  or  science  which  he  or  she  professes,  there 
is  every  reason  to  hope,  that  success  has  crowned  the  efforts 
which  have  been  made  to  render  every  page  instructive  and 
valuable." 

"  I  think  there  can  be  little  doubt  on  that  point,"  said  Aunt 
Elinor;  "but  you  have  omitted  to  remark,  that  acting  upon 
the  suggestions  of  myself,  and  two  or  three  estimable  persons  of 
my  acquaintance,  you  intend  to  offer  your  young  readers  a  brief 
but  impressive  chapter,  by  an  experienced  lady,  on  the  important 
subject  of  Moral  Deportment." 

"  It  had  not  escaped  my  memory,  I  assure  you,  Aunt  Elinor," 
said  the  Editor,  "  neither  have  I  forgotten  to  descend  from  a  very 
high,  to  a  comparatively  trivial  subject — the  fabrication  of  those 
elegant  articles,  denominated  by  Lord  Normanby  nick-nackeries, 
which  are  so  profusely  scattered  around  me.  To  readers  who  are  a 
few  years  younger  than  my  cousin,  I  feel  satisfied  that  the  pages 
which  I  shall  appropriate  to  the  mode  of  constructing  various 
elegant  and  useful  ornaments  of  the  toilet  and  the  boudoir,  will 
be  decidedly  interesting." 

"  And  even  to  those  of  our  own  age  also,"  said  Lady  Mary, 
"  if  you  take  Penelope's  opinion.  The  ingenious  productions  you 
allude  to  are  of  her  own  manufacture  and  the  best  of  them  have 
been  but  lately  completed.  She  has  the  presumption  to  say,  that 
working  in  pasteboard  is  a  familiar  and  practical  illustration  of 
the  principles  of  geometry." 

"  And  with  great  propriety,  rather  than  presumption,  as  I 
should  say,"  observed  Aunt  Elinor. 

"  In  truth,  I  am  almost  inclined  to  agree  with  you,  aunt;  but 
before  you  conclude  your  visit,  cousin,"  said  Lady  Mary,  as  the 
Editor  rose  from  his  seat,  "  allow  me  to  say,  that  both  Penelope  and 
myself  are  conscious  of  the  compliment  you  have  paid  us,  and 
we  must  make  a  suitable  return.  I  remember  being  present, 
some  years  ago,  at  the  ceremony  of  launching  a  frigate:  she  was 
called,  I  think,  the  Ariadne,  or  theArethusa;  and  my  sister  had 
the  honour  of  naming  her,  which  she  did  in  very  delicate  terms, 
while  a  bottle  of  wine  was  thrown  at  the  fair  Arethusa's  head! 
2* 


20 


THE    CABINET    COUNCIL. 


From  this  circumstance  I  take  my  hint;  and  if  you  will  bring 
the  manuscript  of  your  book,  neatly  written  on  gilt-edged  and 
wire-wove  paper,  and  beautifully  bound,  Penelope  shall  name  it, 
while  I  sprinkle  its  title-page  with  eau-de-mille-fleurs." 

"But  what  name  shall  I  confer  upon  itV   inquired  Penelope. 

"  As  it  is  to  be  a  book  exclusively  devoted  to  young  ladies," 
said  Lady  Mary,  "  let  us  resist  all  euphonious  temptations,  of 
which  I  confess  the  very  nature  of  the  work  presents  an  abun- 
dance, and  give  it  the  plain  but  comprehensive  title  of  *  THE 
YOUNG  LADY'S  BOOK.'  " 

"  Your  suggestion  shall  be  adopted,"  said  the  Editor;  "and 
be  assured,  that  I  will  endeavour  to  render  it  worthy  of  its  name. 
And  now,  ladies,  I  shall  assume  my  editorial  mask;  and  with 
the  Graces  for  my  lady-ushers,  proceed  at  once  to  hold  a  Court 
of  Art,  Science,  and  Recreation." 


3L>  ©ubertute. 

Here,  in  this  classic  bower, — the  Muses'  home, — 
Fair  Science  sits  upon  a  throne  empearl'd  ; 

And,  at  the  waving  of  her  wand,  a  Gnome 

Reveals  the  treasures  of  the  mineral  world. 

Her  silver  bow  Latona's  daughter  bends  ; 

Young  Music,  heav'nly  maid !  assumes  the  lyre  ; 
Terpsichore  her  glad  assistance  lends  ; 

And  Painting's  charms  the  youthful  soul  inspire. 

Here,  Flora  reasons  on  a  budding  rose  ; 

Lorn  Philomel  a  learned  treatise  sings  ; 
While  purple  moths  their  graceful  forms  disclose, 

With  lectures  woven  on  their  gorgeous  wings. 

Minerva  and  the  Graces  here  display 

The  charms  of  taste  with  wisdom's  lore  combiu'd  ; 
And  willing  Sylphs  their  various  arts  essay, 

To  raise,  improve,  and  gratify  the  mind. 


MORAL  DEPORTMENT. 


Oft  in  the  pleasant  villages  of  France, 
Some  high-born  lady  crowns  the  rustic  maid 
With  floral  emblems  of  her  modest  worth. 

CENTAL  improvement  should  always  be  made 
conducive  to  moral  advancement:  to  ren- 
der a  young  woman  wise  and  good,  to 
prepare  her  mind  for  the  duties  and  trials 
of  life,  is  the  great  purpose  of  education. 
Accomplishments,  however  desirable  and 
attractive,  must  always  be  considered  as 
secondary  objects,  when  compared  with  those  virtues  which  form 
the  character  and  influence  the  power  of  woman  in  society.  Home 
has  justly  been  called  "  her  empire;'5  and  it  is  certain  that  to  her 
it  is  a  hallowed  circle,  in  which  she  may  diffuse  the  greatest  earthly 
happiness,  or  inflict  the  most  positive  misery:  it  is  never  so  narrow 
but  from  thence  may  stream  many  a  benignant  ray  to  illume  a 
neighbour's  dwelling,  and  it  may  be  wide  enough  to  give  light  to 
thousands.  The  virtues  of  a  woman  of  rank  and  fortune,  extend 
far  beyond  the  mansion  where  she  presides,  or  the  cottage  which 
she  protects,  by  the  example  she  offers,  even  in  the  most  unos- 
tentatious manner  and  in  the  most  trivial  actions,  to  those  around 
her  and  below  her.  Gently,  imperceptibly,  but  most  certainly, 


24  MORAL    DEPORTMENT. 

will  she  imbue  with  her  own  purity  and  beneficence  the  atmos- 
phere in  which  she  moves;  softening  the  obdurate,  correcting 
the  depraved,  and  encouraging  the  timid.  Those  who  are  not 
placed  by  Providence  in  so  brilliant  a  sphere,  may,  by  their  con- 
duct, produce  the  same  effects,  in  a  more  limited  circle  and  in  a 
less  degree,  but  with  equal  honour  and  satisfaction  to  themselves. 

The  virtues  of  the  heart  must  be  cultivated  not  less  than  the 
acquirements  of  the  mind,  or  we  shall  look  in  vain  for  the  fruit 
we  desire ;  nor  must  we  expect  mere  girls  to  exhibit  those  flowers 
which  only  experience  can  supply,  or  labour  attain,  in  either  case ; 
but  as  it  is  certain,  that  knowledge  and  virtue  may,  and  generally 
do,  grow  up  together,  so  we  may  earnestly  entreat  the  young  to 
give  to  this  subject  their  most  anxious  attention. 

In  examining  their  own  conduct,  analysing  motives  and  cor- 
recting errors,  repressing  those  faults  to  which  they  know  that 
they  are  prone,  and  resolving  to  cultivate  virtues  in  which  they 
have  proved  themselves  defective, — females,  at  all  ages,  are,  it  is 
evident,  exceedingly  well  employed,  but  more  especially  so  at  that 
happy  season  of  life,  when  prejudice  and  habits  have  taken  no 
deep  root ;  when  passions  are  generally  easy  of  control,  whilst  the 
sensibilities  and  affections  of  the  heart,  and  all  its  better  impulses, 
are  awakened,  to  aid  us  in  the  task. 

Such  is  the  bias  of  our  natural  dispositions  toward  some  par- 
ticular modification  of  good  or  evil,  that  it  is  a  difficult  task  so  to 
offer  advice  in  the  management  of  temper  and  inclination,  to 
girls  in  general,  as  to  bring  it  home  to  the  feelings  of  any  par- 
ticular individual.  There  is  no  occasion  to  recommend  gentleness 
to  the  timid,  nor  courage  to  the  bold:  to  inspire  the  ambitious 
with  emulation,  or  recommend  ingenuousness  to  the  open  and 
sincere ;  we,  nevertheless,  will  venture  to  lay  before  our  young 
readers  what  may  be  termed  a  list  of  virtues,  not  one  of  which 
can  be  dispensed  with  in  the  female  character,  since  all  will,  un- 
questionably, be  called  for,  at  one  period  or  other,  in  their  path 
through  life,  as  a  means  of  security  to  themselves  and  of  benefit  to 
others,  and  which  are  positively  demanded  by  the  religion  which 
they  profess  as  Christians. 

Piety,  integrity,  fortitude,  charity,  obedience,  consideration, 
sincerity,  prudence,  activity,  and  cheerfulness,  with  the  disposi- 
tions which  spring  from,  and  the  amiable  qualities  which  rise  out 
of  them,  may,  we  presume,  nearly  define  those  moral  properties 
called  for  in  the  daily  conduct  and  habitual  deportment  of  young 
ladies.  On  each  of  these  I  beg  to  dilate  a  little,  not  merely  for  the 


MORAL    DEPORTMENT.  25 

purpose  of  explaining  what  will  be  self-evident  to  every  reflecting 
mind;  but  in  order  to  impress  more  deeply  on  the  memory,  asser- 
tions and  facts  too  frequently  forgotten  in  the  confusion  of  multi- 
farious engagements,  or  more  amusing  disquisitions*  Allow  me 
to  say,  I  would  do  more:  I  would  address  myself  warmly,  ten- 
derly, to  the  heart  of  every  young  creature  who  casts  her  eye 
over  these  pages ;  intreating  her,  by  every  affectionate  epithet,  and 
every  powerful  motive,  to  consider  their  importance  to  herself, 
and  all  whom  she  loves,  or  may  love> — *their  consequences  through 
life  and  after  death. 

PIETY  includes  faith,  devotion,  resignation,  and  that  love  and 
gratitude  to  God,  which  stimulates  us  to  inquire  his  will,  and 
perform  it,  so  far  as  the  weakness  and  imperfection  of  our  nature 
permit.  It  offers  the  best  foundation,  not  only  for  solid  happiness, 
but  for  that  serenity  of  temper,  and  disposition  to  innocent  gaiety, 
which  is  at  once  the  charm  and  the  privilege  of  youth.  No  idea 
can  be  more  fallacious  than  the  supposition  that  the  refined  and 
rational  pleasures  of  society  are  incompatible  with  those  acts  of 
devotion,  and  that  occasional  abstraction  of  the  mind  from  worldly 
pursuits,  practised  by  every  pious  person.  The  lofty  aspirations, 
the  deep  humility,  and  unshrinking  confidence  of  a  Christian,  in 
those  moments  when  the  soul  may  be  said  "  to  commune  with  her 
God,"  can  have  no  other  effect  on  any  well-regulated  mind,  than 
that  of  adding  sweetness  to  the  usual  intercourse,  and  interest  to 
the  common  incidents  of  life.  It  increases  the  endearing  submis- 
sion of  the  daughter,  the  fond  affection  of  the  sister,  the  kindness 
of  the  friend,  and  the  generous  forbearance  of  the  superior,  by  a 
perpetual  sense  of  the  abiding  presence  of  Him,  from  whom  we 
have  received  the  blessings,  or  by  whom  we  are  exercised  by  the 
trials,  these  dear  connexions  may  impart,  and  extends  our  sympathy 
to  the  whole  human  race*  I  lately  had  the  pleasure  of  witnessing 
the  deep  interest  taken  by  two  amiable  sisters  in  two  younger 
branches  of  the  family,  at  the  period  of  their  confirmation,  and 
shall  not  soon  forget  the  peculiar  tenderness^  the  lively  attention, 
with  which  each  party  regarded  the  other  the  remainder  of  the  day. 
A  new  and  holy  tie  seemed  added  to  their  former  bonds ;  a  sweet 
seriousness,  by  no  means  allied  to  sadness,  sat  on  the  face  of  the 
younger;  whilst  smiles,  as  of  welcome  to  new  blessings  and  en- 
larged affections,  illumined  the  countenances  of  the  elder,  who 
were  both  still  unJer  nineteen, — most  elegant  and  accomplished 
young  women,  moving  in  the  first  circles  of  society.  I  am  well 
aware,  that  all  high- wrought  emotions,  however  pure  and  exalted, 


26  MORAL    DEPORTMENT. 

must  subside;  but  they  leave,  like  the  rose,  fragrance  when  their 
bloom  is  faded;  and  I  am  justified  in  believing,  that  these  sisters 
played  their  next  duet  together,  contrived  a  new  dress  for  their 
mother,  or  engaged  in  any  of  the  common  occupations  of  life, 
with  increased  attachment  and  more  lively  interest,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  sympathy  in  devotional  feelings  they  had  expe- 
rienced for,  and  with,  each  other. 

INTEGRITY  is  a  virtue  of  great  extent:  it  includes  rectitude  of 
intention,  honesty  of  action,  an  aversion  from  all  deceit,  and  that 
sense  of  justice  which  prevents  us  from  injuring  our  fellow 
creatures,  not  only  in  word  or  deed,  but  even  in  thought.  The 
world  is  extremely  deficient  in  that  common  honesty,  which  every 
one  would  blush  to  have  doubted ;  therefore,  it  well  becomes  us  all 
to  examine  our  claims  to  being  considered  persons  of  sound 
principles:  and  young  people  should  closely  look  into  their  own 
bosoms,  and  determinately  subdue  in  themselves  all  those  pro- 
pensities which  militate  against  their  own  sense  of  uprightness. 
They  should  remember,  that  all  extravagance  has  a  direct  ten- 
dency to  great  evil,  and  has  rendered  more  persons  unjust  than 
any  other  failing.  It  is  one  of  the  most  pernicious  branches  of 
selfishness,  which  always  seeks  to  appropriate  that  which  it  desires, 
without  considering  the  claims  of  another:  whereas,  a  generous 
and  noble  spirit  would  renounce  its  own  wishes  for  another's 
good;  and  a  simply  honest  mind  would,  at  least,  scrupulously 
weigh  its  own  rights,  lest  it  should  encroach  on  another's.  It  is 
the  more  necessary  to  gain  proper  ideas  on  this  subject,  because 
the  farther  you  advance  in  life,  the  more  you  will  be  tried.  In 
my  opinion,  all  young  persons,  on  leaving  school,  ought  to  have 
a  regular  income,  to  which,  whether  it  be  large  or  small,  they 
should  accommodate  their  expenses.  Wise  parents  will  render  it 
suitable  to  their  rank  in  life,  and  the  necessities  their  daughter 
may  happen  to  have  for  her  appearance  in  society.  Too  much, 
or  too  little,  will  be  found  alike  injurious :  the  former  will  render 
an  unthinking  girl  profuse,  and  a  prudent  one  covetous:  in  one 
case,  money  will  be  wasted  to  no  good  end ;  in  the  other,  accumu- 
lated for  no  beneficial  purpose.  Too  small  an  allowance,  though 
the  lesser  evil  of  the  two,  should  also  be  avoided,  as  being  likely  to 
induce  envious  dispositions,  petty  meannesses,  and  to  prove  inju- 
rious to  that  strict  sense  of  integrity,  that  undeviating  rectitude, 
which  is  not  only  the  best  bond  of  social  life,  but  the  hinge  on 
which  domestic  happiness  and  individual  respec lability  are  con- 
tinually turning. 


MORAL    DEPORTMENT.  27 

FORTITUDE,  like  Integrity,  may  be  termed  one  of  the  severer 
virtues;  but  it  is  not  the  less  necessary  for  the  weaker  sex,  since 
with  less  physical  strength,  and  feAver  opportunities  of  improving 
it,  either  mentally  or  corporeally,  woman  is  yet  called  upon  to  exert 
great  powers  of  endurance,  both  actively  and  passively.  The  pains 
of  sickness,  the  misfortunes  of  life,  the  inflictions  of  calumny,  call 
upon  her  for  patience  under  suffering;  and  firmness,  resolution, 
and  perseverance  in  conduct;  without  these  qualities,  a  woman, 
however  engaging  or  attractive  as  a  companion,  must  be  found 
deficient  in  all  the  nearer  relationships  of  life,  and  incapable  of 
fulfilling  its  more  important  duties,  all  of  which,  in  her  own  per- 
son, or  that  of  some  near  connexion,  demand  the  assistance  this 
virtue,  in  one  of  its  many  forms,  can  alone  supply. 

CHARITY.  The  sweet  exercise  of  this  virtue  seems  so  con- 
genial to  the  nature  of  youth,  that  I  would  rather  seek  to  regulate 
its  impulses,  than  recommend  it  to  an  attention,  I  trust,  already 
attained.  A  young  lady,  rich  in  the  possession  of  friends  and 
fortune,  who  is  devoid  of  pity,  incapable  of  the  offices  of  hu- 
manity, or  withholding  the  aid  of  charity,  appears  to  me  an  ano- 
maty  in  creation.  To  this  fair  miser, — this  scentless  flower,  which 
shall  blossom  without  esteem,  and  fall  without  regret,  I  offer  no 
advice  on  the  subject;  but  to  the  generous,  tender,  and  kind- 
hearted  girl,  whose  wishes  run  beyond  her  means, — to  the  scru- 
pulous and  prudent,  who  fears  lest  she  should  commit  an  error 
whilst  she  indulges  a  virtuous  inclination, — I  would  suggest  a  few 
admonitions. 

Whether  you  are  the  mistress  of  a  regular  allowance,  or  the 
proprietor  of  casual  sums,  never  fail  to  appropriate  some  portion 
of  your  pocket-money  to  a  charity-purse.  When  you  are  making 
purchases,  and,  after  due  deliberation,  see  that  of  two  articles  the 
cheaper  will  answer  your  purpose,  add  the  money  you  thus  save 
to  the  same  sacred  deposit,  by  which  means  you  will  seldom  be 
placed  in  the  painful  situation,  of  eagerly  desiring  to  give,  whilst 
you  are  conscious  that  in  prudence  and  justice  you  have  nothing 
to  bestow.  Economy  is  the  handmaid  of  Charity;  without  her 
aid,  the  melting  heart  and  the  tearful  eye  are  of  no  avail,  there- 
fore never  despise  her  assistance,  even  in  trifles :  but  as  cases  will 
occur  so  pressing  on  the  claims  of  humanity,  for  present  and 
larger  help  than  the  purse  in  question  can  supply,  you  may  some- 
times encroach,  without  blame,  upon  your  general  store;  in  which 
case,  make  up  the  deficiency  by  some  new  act  of  self-denial;  for 
regularity  is  as  necessary  a  duty  as  charity  is  an  agreeable  one. 


28  MORAL   DEPORTMENT. 

Do  not  forget  that  Charity  has  a  much  wider  signification  than 
alms-giving.  Affability  of  manners;  gentleness  of  demeanour; 
attention  to  the  courtesies  of  life;  compassion  towards  all  who 
suffer,  whether  high  or  low;  a  kind  construction  of  all  the  words 
and  actions  of  our  fellow  creatures ;  and  patient  forbearance,  or 
generous  forgiveness,  towards  those  who  have  grieved  or  injured 
us, — are  also  demanded  by  this  virtue.  "  Charity  suffereth  long 
and  is  kind; — Charity  envieth  not; — Charity  vaunteth  not  itself," 
— is  the  language  of  that  Apostle  who  best  understood  its  nature 
and  has  so  touchingly  concentrated  its  qualities. 

OBEDIENCE  is  so  much  demanded  in  the  female  character, 
that  many  persons  have  conceived  it  was  the  one  virtue  called 
for  in  woman,  as  it  must  be  deemed  by  all  to  be  such  in  a  child. 
If  man,  as  the  guide  and  head  of  woman,  were  himself  a  perfect 
creature,  this  would,  unquestionably,  be  true ;  but  as  a  being,  ac- 
countable to  her  Creator,  and  endowed  by  him  with  reason, — 
unqualified  and  implicit  obedience  to  a  creature  like  herself,  liable 
to  many  errors,  cannot,  consistently,  be  required.  It  is,  however, 
certain,  that  in  whatever  situation  of  life  a  woman  is  placed,  from 
her  cradle  to  her  grave,  a  spirit  of  obedience  and  submission,  plia- 
bility of  temper,  and  humility  of  mind,  are  required  from  her; 
and  the  most  highly-gifted  cannot  quit  the  path  thus  pointed  out 
by  habit,  nature,  and  religion,  without  injury  to  her  own  character. 
Modesty,  which  may  be  termed  the  inherent  virtue,  and  the  native 
grace,  of  woman, — which  she  may  be  exhorted  to  retain,  but  will 
seldom  be  entreated  to  acquire, — renders  obedience,  in  general, 
easy  and  habitual  to  her,  especially  at  that  period  of  life,  when 
she  is  placed  under  paternal  care,  and  "  the  yoke  is  easy, — the 
burden  light."  There  are,  however,  gay  and  buoyant  spirits, 
haughty  and  self-willed  minds,  even  among  the  softer  sex,  that 
are  not  otherwise  ill-disposed,  who  feel  obedience  a  difficult 
task,  and  are  ready  to  question  the  wisdom,  or  analyse  the  rights, 
of  "  all  in  authority  over  them."  To  such  I  would  urge  this  virtue 
as  a  religious  duty,  if  they  could  not  submit  to  it  as  "  a  reasonable 
service."  I  would  beseech  them,  as  females  called  to  self-control 
and  meekness,  to  obey,  "for  conscience*  sake,"  in  every  case 
where  conscience  itself  did  not  utter  the  command,  "  hitherto  shall 
thou  go,  but  no  further." 

CONSIDERATION  is  of  the  utmost  value  in  that  situation  where 
the  conduct  of  woman  has  its  greatest  utility  and  most  valuable 
influence, — the  domestic  circle.  It  combines  the  powers  of  reflec- 
tion, with  the  sentiments  of  kindness,  and  saves  from  many  an 


MORAL    DEPORTMENT.  29 

anxious  hour,  and  wearisome  labour,  the  parent  who  thinks  for 
you,  the  teacher  who  instructs  you,  the  servant  who  toils  for  you. 
It  is  a  gentle  and  feminine  virtue,  unobtrusive  as  to  appearance, 
but  important  in  effect.  The  threatenings  of  incipient  disease, — 
the  ruin  caused  by  foolish  expenditure,  or  likely  to  ensue  from 
idle  speculation, — the  temptations  which  might  have  misled  an 
ignorant  servant, — the  disclosures  that  would  ruin  an  imprudent 
Acquaintance, — the  present  aid  that  may  save  a  wretched  family, — 
may  be  happily  prevented  or  supplied  by  Consideration.  It  is  the 
"  still  small  voice,"  which  can  allay  the  tempest,  or  direct  the 
tide  of  human  affairs,  by  an  agency  alike  mild  and  beneficial, 
powerful  and  unassuming. 

SINCERITY  has  been  hailed  by  the  poet  as  the  "  first  of  virtues ; " 
and  it  has  the  benefit  of  being,  like  modesty,  a  pretty  general  one 
to  the  young  and  artless,  who  cannot  have  so  mixed  with  the 
world  as  to  have  learned  deceit.  Children  are  seldom  disingenuous, 
but  in  some,  extreme  timidity  produces  this  effect;  the  want  of 
courage  to  own  their  faults,  or  reveal  their  wishes,  leads  them  to 
effect,  by  cunning,  the  power  of  veiling  the  one,  and  procuring  the 
other.  Such  a  tendency  to  error  calls  for  no  little  care  from  the 
instructer;  and  if  her  efforts  have  not  wholly  succeeded  in  clear- 
ing the  soil,  injured  by  the  excess  of  its  own  delicacy,  let  the 
young  lady  herself  seek  diligently  to  recover  her  own  esteem,  by 
struggling  against  everything  in  her  bosom  allied  to  concealment, 
lest  deception  should  be  mingled  with  reserve.  It  is  the  painful, 
but  necessary,  regime,  to  which  her  mind  must  be  subjected,  until 
she  have  acquired  habits  of  sincerity,  if  not  of  openness ;  and  all 
who  love  her  must  assist  the  effort.  Sincerity  is  so  nearly  allied 
to  Integrity,  that  they  can  scarcely  exist  asunder.  The  love  of 
truth  and  the  practice  of  fair  dealing  go  hand  in  hand ;  and  whilst 
we  regard  them  as  virtues,  lovely  in  their  simplicity,  we  venerate 
them  as  the  majestic  foundation  on  which  a  beautiful  structure 
shall  hereafter  be  erected.  But  whilst  I  earnestly  intreat  one  class 
of  young  ladies  to  render  themselves  sincere,  as  well  as  gentle, — 
ingenuous,  as  well  as  meek, — I  cannot  dismiss  the  subject  without 
advice  to  those  frank  and  open-hearted  girls,  who  are  not  liable  to 
the  sin  of  deceit,  but  who,  in  their  scorn  of  flattery,  and  profes- 
sion of  extraordinary  freedom,  are  liable  to  mistake  rudeness  for 
sincerity.  To  be  blunt  in  reply,  quick  in  censure,  and  severe  in 
remonstrance,  is  not  only  unfeminine,  unladylike,  anJ,  as  such, 
reprehensible,  but  it  ought  to  be  particularly  avoided  by  the  young; 
because  they  cannot  possibly  hope  to  be  of  any  utility  to  their 


30  MORAL    DEPORTMENT 

fellow  creatures,   by   affecting   the   character   of  reprovers      To 

them,  more  particularly,  may  the  advice  of  our  Lord  apply; 

"Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged;"  for  seldom  are  they  aware 
how  much  the  pride  of  their  own  hearts,  and  the  irritation  of  their 
own  tempers,  may  mingle  with  their  admonitions:  but  they  ought 
to  be  assured,  that  their  equals  in  age  will  not  suppose  them  wise 
enough  to  direct ;  and  to  their  elders  it  must,  unquestionably,  seem 
presumption  to  attempt  it.  There  may,  undoubtedly,  arise  in 
early  life,  and  especially  in  female  life,  occasions  when 

The  grave  rebuke, 
Severe  in  youtliful  majesty, — 

may  be  uttered  from  young  lips,  and  glanced  from  young  eyes,  so 
as  to  prove  effectual  advocates  for  religion  and  virtue ;  but  bene- 
ficial effects,  of  this  description,  are  not  often  found  to  arise  from 
those  who  pique  themselves  upon  plain  speaking.  Such  persons 
lose  the  power  of  delicate  reproof,  or  decisive  disapprobation,  on 
the  extraordinary  occasions  which  may  occur,  by  wasting  their 
energies  on  trivial  subjects,  and  evincing  a  determination  to  speak 
their  hastily-formed  opinions,  at  the  expense  of  humility,  charity, 
and  patience.  Let  us  never  forget,  my  dear  young  friends,  that 
"  a  mild  answer  turneth  away  wrath;"  and  that  the  same  Divine 
Word  which  bade  many  "  resist  unto  death  "  for  a  great  cause, 
bade  its  followers,  also,  "  be  affable  and  courteous."  It  is,  in 
these  times,  our  happy  and  pleasant  duty,  to  add  that  politeness 
of  the  heart,  which  is  produced  by  the  Christian  graces,  to  that 
polish  of  the  manners  which  is  the  result  of  a  sound  understand- 
ing and  self-controlled  mind.  The  purest  sincerity  is  compatible 
with  both ;  and  it  should  be  an  object  of  solicitude  with  every  one, 
to  be  alike  upright  and  consistent,  gentle  and  sincere. 

PRUDENCE  may  be  termed  rather  a  quality  than  a  virtue;  but 
it  is  so  necessary  for  all  the  purposes  of  life,  that  an  imprudent 
person  seldom  escapes  the  imputation  of  some  vice,  and  the  in- 
fliction of  much  unnecessary  sorrow.  The  generosity  and  ardour 
of  youth,  too  frequently  lead  young  people  to  consider  the  lessons 
of  prudence  as  allied  to  mistrust,  fastidiousness,  or  avarice;  but 
they  are  by  no  means  necessarily  so,  though  it  is  possible  for 
them  thus  to  degenerate  in  peculiar  dispositions.  Sincerity  is 
perfectly  compatible  with  true  politeness;  and  Prudence,  with 
generosity,  confidence  and  friendship.  Every  young  lady,  who 
thinks  before  she  acts,  will  easily  see  the  patli  which  Prudence 
dictates,  and  rarely  find  that  it  demands  any  other  sacrifice  than 


MORAL    DEPORTMENT.  31 

those  required  by  positive  duty;    and  without  thinking,  she  can 
neither  acquire  virtue,  nor  secure  happiness. 

ACTIVITY  and  CHEERFULNESS  maybe  linked  together,  for 
the  former  is  frequently  the  cause  of  the  latter ;  and  both  are  de- 
manded in  early  life,  as  the  flowers  of  spring,  which  give  beauty 
and  gladness  to  the  earth  for  the  present,  whilst  they  promise  the 
harvest  which  will  enrich  us  at  the  future  hour.  Indolence  of 
habit  creates  gloominess  of  manner  and  acerbity  in  temper,  and 
induces  those  diseases  which  create  and  increase  the  evil,  and 
prove  more  injurious  to  the  character  and  the  person  than  sickness 
itself.  We  have  all  seen  amiable  but  afflicted  young  people,  who 
have  endured  confinement  with  cheerfulness, — pain  with  fortitude ; 
and,  from  motives  of  affection  to  their  parents  and  friends,  preserved 
a  portion  of  their  youthful  sprightliness  and  energy,  through  days 
of  weariness  and  nights  of  suffering ;  but  in  the  listless  apathy  of 
idleness,  and  the  languor  of  indifference,  every  virtue  perishes, 
and  every  talent  fades.  Far  better  is  it  to  have  too  much  enthu- 
siasm, buoyancy,  and  energy,  in  youth,  than  too  little ;  for  expe- 
rience, care,  and  knowledge,  will  correct  the  redundancy:  but  it 
is,  indeed,  difficult  to  excite  the  cold-hearted  to  exertion,  or  woo 
the  inert  and  stupid  to  the  cultivation  of  taste  and  intellect.  She 
who  has,  from  a  sense  of  duty,  and  the  force  of  good  principles, 
conquered  this  lethargy  of  the  mind,  is  therefore  entitled  to  the 
highest  praise ;  and  her  future  activity  and  cheerfulness  may  indeed 
be  ranked  in  the  list  of  virtues. 

In  every  family,  from  the  highest  to  the  humblest  situation, 
there  is  a  necessity  for  active  services  on  the  part  of  the  young 
ladies,  too  evident  to  require  enumeration.  So  soon  as  the  cares 
of  education  are  over,  every  mother  has  a  right  to  expect  from  her 
daughter  such  attention  to  the  domestic  arrangements,  the  younger 
branches  of  the  family,  and  the  entertainment  of  visitants,  as  may 
lighten  her  own  burden,  and  impart  to  her  the  delightful  satisfac- 
tion of  finding  a  friend  and  companion  in  that  beloved  being,  for 
whose  welfare  she  has  been  so  long  solicitous.  Such  occupation 
need  not,  by  any  means,  interfere  with  the  elegant  pursuits,  or  the 
common  amusements  of  social  life,  if  early  rising  be  adopted; 
for  two  hours  in  the  morning  are  more  valuable  than  four  at  any 
later  period,  when  the  routine  of  family  engagements  is  entered 
upon.  It  has  the  additional  merit,  to  an  active  and  modest  girl, 
of  rendering  her  pursuits  private.  Last  summer,  I  was  a  visiter 
lor  several  weeks  in  a  gentleman's  family,  without  discerning  that 
the  blooming  girls  I  met  at  breakfast  had  been  preparing  their 
3* 


32  MORAL    DEPORTMENT. 

little  brothers  for  their  classical  lessons,  instructing  a  younger 
sister  in  music,  and  settling  that  provision  for  the  day,  demanded 
by  a  numerous  establishment ;  but  I  now  know  that  these  merito- 
rious and  truly  endearing  services  are  performed  by  them  with  not 
less  vigilance,  even  during  their  abode  in  London,  amid  the 
gaieties  of  the  season.  (Dear  and  excellent  young  friends!  to 
whom  memory  and  affection  turned,  when  I  began  this  essay,  and 
look  again  whilst  I  am  concluding  it,  happy  should  I  have  been  to 
dedicate  to  you  this  little  compendium  of  moral  duties,  which 
your  conduct  has  proved  to  be  attainable  in  youth;  but  it  will 
better  suit  your  delicacy,  and  my  own  sense  of  it,  to  be  silent.) 

That  much  more  might  have  been  said,  will  be  evident  to  all 
who  duly  weigh  the  subject;  but  I  would  not  weary  those  whom 
I  desire  to  benefit.  A  writer,  who  has  for  many  years  conscien- 
tiously endeavoured  to  supply  to  the  young  those  lessons  they 
greatly  need,  in  the  form  they  constantly  desire,  has  a  right  to 
be  considered  a  personal  friend,  since  they  are  familiarly  ac- 
quainted with  her  principles,  feelings,  thoughts,  and  wishes.  As 
such,  affectionately  and  earnestly  I  request  their  attention  to 
subjects  so  deeply  interesting,  so  immediately  connected  with 
their  best  interests,  and  which,  for  the  first  time,  I  venture  t) 
offer  without  the  clothing  of  fiction,  or  the  aid  of  anecdote. 


THE    FLORIST, 


Proserpine,  gathering  flowers, 
Herself  a  fairer  flower,  by  gloomy  Dis 
Was  gathered. 

ARIOUS  are  die  notions  entertained  relati/e 
to  Botany.  A  great  number  of  persons  con- 
ceive it  to  be  a  mere  dry  study  of  the  forms 
of  plants ;  that  a  botanist  minutely  examines 
every  notch  and  gland  of  a  plant,  and  turns 
over  various  volumes  only  to  ascertain  its 
name ;  which  having  discovered,  he  is  satis- 
fied. Judging  by  this  false  estimate,  they  pronounce  Botany 
to  be  insipid  and  useless; — a  sort  of  grave  and  dreary  idling. 
Let  those  who  thus  decide  upon  its  merits,  first  inquire  what 
they  really  are.  Botany  is  not  a  mere  knowledge  of  the  names 
of  plants,  and  of  the  mode  of  ascertaining  those  names  by  a 
reference  to  the  classes,  orders,  genera,  divisions,  or  families,  of 
a  system,  artificial  or  natural:  this  is  but  the  alphabet  of  Botany; 
which,  having  learned,  the  botanist  begins  to  inquire  into  the 
internal  construction  of  plants;  their  affinities,  and  their  differ- 
ences ;  and  by  what  means  they  live,  and  receive  nourishment : 
hence  he  learns  the  soil  and  mode  of  cultivation  best  adapted  for 
each ;  the  uses  to  which  they  may  be  applied,  and  the  evils  which 
are  to  be  prevented.  He  inquires  what  country  produces  a  plant 
in  its  wild  state ;  for  what  purpose  it  is  used  by  the  natives ;  and 


34  THE    FLORIST. 

whether  another,  nearly  related  to  it,  might  not  be  applied  to  the 
same  use  in  the  country  to  which  such  other  belongs ;  so  that  its 
inhabitants  might  not  only  be  spared  the  expense  of  importation, 
but  derive  advantage  from  what  had  previously  been  considered 
an  useless  weed.  It  has  not  unfrequently  happened,  that  plants 
have  been  imported  at  great  expense  from  foreign  countries,  which 
have  afterwards  been  discovered  to  be  indigenous.  It  must  be 
acknowledged,  that  some  plants  have  entirely  lost  their  value  by 
growing  nearer  home;  but,  in  such  cases,  the  fault  lies  not  with  the 
botanist,  but  with  those  who  value  things  in  proportion  to  the 
trouble  and  money  expended  in  their  attain- 
ment. The  Golden-rod  (Solidago  Virgaurea, 
fig.  1)  was  formerly  considered  an  excellent 
vulnerary;  and  our  ancestors  imported  it  at 
half-a-crown  an  ounce.  "But  since  it  was 
found  in  Hampstead  wood,"  says  Gerard, "  even 
as  it  were  at  our  towne's  end,  no  man  will  give 
halfe-a-crowne  for  an  hundred  weight  of  it." 
Not  to  dwell  longer  upon  the  utility  of  the 
science,  of  which,  however,  very  much  might 
be  said,  it  is  infinitely  agreeable ;  and  the  reader 
may,  with  little  difficulty  call  to  mind  many 
anecdotes  and  pleasing  associations  with  plants,  which  will  endow 
them  with  considerable  interest.  In  Mythology,  many  flowers 
and  plants  hold  eminent  stations.  The  histories  of  Narcissus, 
Hyacinth,  Clytia,  Daphne,  &c.  have  often  been  "  the  poet's 
theme."  Daphne,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  changed  into  a 
Laurel, — the  true  poetic  Laurel  (Laurus  nobilis,)  which  is  said  to 
resist  the  lightning.  Clytia  was  metamorphosed  into  that  sweet 
flower,  the  Peruvian  Heliotrope,  which  formerly  bore  her  name. 
The  word  Heliotrope  signifies  a  follower  of  the  sun ;  as  Helianthus 
does  the  Sunflower. 

The  close  examination  necessary  to  discover  the  genus  and 
species  of  a  plant,  makes  us  acquainted  with  many  beauties  con- 
cealed from  general  observation,  either  by  their  situation  or  their 
minuteness.  We  have  not  only  an  endless  variety  before  our  eyes, 
but  are  continually  struck  with  the  purpose  and  foresight  displayed 
in  apparently  trifling  peculiarities.  We  are  always  learning  some- 
thing new ;  and  the  knowledge  we  thus  acquire  is  such  as  calls 
forth  our  admiration  and  gratitude;  and  while  it  gives  that  con- 
scious power,  which  all  knowledge,  more  or  less,  bestows,  awakens 
a  sense  of  humility,  by  a  comparison,  which  cannot  fail  to  occur 


THE    FLORIST.  35 

to  us,  between  our  own  powers  and  the  simplest  works  of  Nature. 
We  cannot  pursue  knowledge  of  any  kind,  without  enlarging  our 
views,  as  well  as  acquiring  new  ideas ;  and  botany  has  the  great 
advantage  of  ameliorating  the  disposition,  while  it  elevates  the 
mind. 

Even  those  who  do  not  study  plants  botanically,  may  find 
pleasure  in  rearing  and  attending  to  them ;  which  is  as  elegant 
and  interesting  an  amusement  as  any  pursuit  whatever  to  which 
a  young  lady  can  devote  her  leisure.  I  take  it  for  granted,  she 
feels  all  that  delight  in  them  which  seems  so  naturally  to  belong 
to  her  age  and  sex.  A  love  of  the  beauties  of  nature,  whether  in 
general  or  in  detail,  is  always  amiable ;  and  there  is  something  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  feminine  tenderness  in  the  care  of  flowers.  Do 
not  mistake  me,  fair  reader,  I  beseech  you;  I  would  not  be  under- 
stood to  insinuate,  that  no  one  is  amiable  who  does  not  love  to 
rear  flowers.  One  young  lady  may  be  indifferent  to  them,  from 
having  seen  but  little  of  their  beauties;  another,  from  having 
seen  too  much.  Yes;  I  can  conceive  a  possibility,  that  being 
constantly  surrounded  by  a  variety  of  fine  flowers, — in  the  garden, 
in  the  green-house,  and  in  every  part  of  the  dwelling-house, — 
which  no  one  seems  to  regard;  which  are  tended  and  watered  by 
servants;  and  of  which  she  knows  not,  perhaps,  half-a-dozen, 
even  by  name, — may  render  a  young  lady  careless  and  altogether 
indifferent  about  them;  who,  under  other  circumstances,  would 
have  shown  a  taste  for  their  beauties,  and  an  inclination  for  their 
culture.  A  different  disposition  might  be  otherwise  influenced  by 
the  same  habits ;  and  might  imbibe  a  taste  for  seeing,  rearing,  or 
studying  them,  by  this  long  and  intimate  familiarity  with  their 
beauty  and  fragrance. 

Should  a  young  lady  profess  a  total  disregard  of  flowers,  I 
should  yet  be  unwilling  to  admit  that  she  was  incapable  of  feeling 
their  sweet  influence,  though  circumstances  might  have  rendered 
her  insensible  to  them ;  and  should  be  inclined  to  propose  to  her 
a  few  questions,  by  way  of  ascertaining  the  cause  of  so  (as  it 
would  seem  to  me)  unfeminine  an  insensibility.  I  would  ask  her, 
if  she  had  ever,  during  her  infancy  or  childhood,  been  permitted 
to  run,  sit,  walk,  or  gather  wild  flowers  in  the  green  meadows'? 
If  she  had  ever  waded,  breast  high,  in  the  long  grass,  to  gather 
Butter-cups  and  Sorrel  1  If  she  had  ever  filled  her  frock  with 
Daisies, — priding  herself  in  finding  the  reddest-lipped  1  If  she 
had  ever  pelted  her  young  companions  with  balls,  made  on  the 
instant,  with  fresh  gathered  Cowslips ;  or  slily  adorned  them  with 


36  THE    FLORIST. 

Cleavers  (Galium  Aparine,  fig.  2,)  and  laughed  to  see  their  re- 
peatedly vain  endeavours  to  escape  from  their  tenacious  hold! — 
If  she  had  been  permitted  all  these  sports, 
and  yet  loved  not  these  pretty  toys  of  her  child- 
hood, I  should,  indeed,  fear  that  her  distaste 
were  a  deficiency  of  taste  in  general.  I  should 
conjecture,  that  she  who  loved  not  the  lovely 
dress  and  various  ornaments  in  which  Nature 
and  the  Seasons  are  attired,  would  have  little 
relish  for  the  delightful  scenery  of  Spenser ;  that 
she  who  failed  to  treasure  up  these  early  asso- 
ciations of  innocent  pleasures,  would  but  ill 
appreciate  the  human  sympathies  of  Shake- 
speare. If  it  should  appear  that  these  young  pleasures  were 
wholly  unknown  to  her ;  that  she  had  been  accustomed  to  enjoy 
die  fresh  air  only  in  the  formal  progress  of  a  school  procession, 
or  a  fashionable  promenade;  if  she  had  only  contemplated  the 
general  beauty  of  the  country  from  a  carriage-window,  or  her 
walks  had  been  confined  to  her  father's  grounds;  then,  indeed,  I 
should  be  disposed  to  congratulate  her,  that  she  possessed  pleasures 
in  store,  which  had  been  denied  to  her  earlier  youth;  and  to  ex- 
hort her  to  throw  off  the  trammels  of  mistaken  dignity,  and  no 
longer  to  debar  herself  from  those  innocent  enjoyments  which 
impartial  Nature  offers  alike  to  all.  I  would  urge  her  to  seek  the 
shade  of  the  woods,  the  freshness  of  the  hills,  the  placid  beauty 
of  the  valleys,  and  the  flowery  banks  of  the  winding  river.  I  would 
entreat  her  to  enfranchise  herself  from  the  thrall  of  Fashion,  and 
visit  the  spacious  orchestra  of  Nature,  that  day  and  night,  re- 
sounds with  music: — 

Shrill  through  the  crystal  air  the  music  swims, 

To  which  the  humming  bee 

Keeps  careless  company, 
Flying,  solicitous,  from  flower  to  flower, 

Tasting  each  sweet  that  dwells 

Within  their  scented  bells. 

It  is  not  recommended  to  a  young  lady  to  dig  up  the  earth, 
study  the  modes  of  manuring  it,  or  prepare  compost :  it  will 
suffice  for  every  purpose  of  health  and  pleasure,  that  she  can  sow 
the  seeds  in  their  fit  season ;  transplant  the  seedlings  or  young  ever- 
greens; trim  them  and  train  them;  give  them  sun  or  shade;  water, 
or  keep  them  dry,  as  their  different  habits  may  require.  A  garden 
offers  many  light  and  graceful  occupations  to  a  young  lady;  as,  the 


THE    FLORIST.  37 

removal  of  decayed  leaves  and  flowers ;  raising  and  tying  up  roses, 
or  other  flowers,  bending  beneath  the  weight  of  their  own  beauty; 
training  the  Convolvulus,  Sweet-pea,  or  other  light  climbers,  to 
their  frames  or  lattices ;  uprooting  the  lighter  weeds ;  and,  in  some 
few  instances,  lightening  trees  of  their  superfluous  blossoms ;  or 
preserving  strength  to  the  roots,  by  removing  the  flowers  ere  their 
seed  be  ripened.  Let  us  take  a  turn  in  the  garden  now,  and  see 
what  cares  it  asks  of  us. 

Oh!  those  beautiful  White  Lilies  are  out!  How  elegant  is  their 
form!  How  pure  their  whiteness!  How  delicate  their  texture! 
How  majestic  their  height!  This  is  the  flower  of  Juno;  and  is, 
perhaps,  the  only  one  that  could  have  saved  that  jealous  goddess 
from  grudging  to  Venus  the  possession 

Of  the  Rose,  full-lipp'd  and  warm, 
Round  about  whose  riper  form 
Her  slender  virgin  train  are  seen 
In  their  close-fit  caps  of  green. 

Some  other  of  the  Lilies  show  well  side  by  side  with  this  white 
one  : — that  fine  Red  Lily,  called  the  Jacoboea  (Amaryllis  formo- 
sissima,  fig.  3,)  for  instance.  The  Lilies  are 
a  noble  family,  and  splendid  in  their  attire. 
We  see  them  glowing  in  the  most  dazzling 
colours, — crimson,  vermilion,  and  fire-colour; 
some  dropped  with  gold ;  all  large,  rich,  and 
elegant;  yet  we  doom  the  rest  of  these  fine 
flowers  to  oblivion,  in  favour  of  the  white  lilies. 
Though  no  flowers  boast  of  finer,  or  of  a  greater 
variety  of  colours,  we  persist  in  considering 
them  as  emblems  of  the  very  perfection  of 
whiteness  and  purity.  It  is  remarkable,  that 
with  the  exception  of  these  bridal  flowers,  the  Lilies  are  particularly 
warm-coloured :  they  affect  no  pale  pinks,  blues,  or  lemon  colours ; 
but  be  it  red,  blue,  or  yellow,  assume  each  hue  in  all  its  strength 
and  power.  The  White  Lily  has  some  colour,  just  enough  to  make 
it  appear  the  whiter:  the  six  large  golden  anthers  play  in  the 
centre  like  flame  in  a  lamp  of  alabaster.  It  has  been  observed 
of  flowers,  that  many  of  the  more  fragrant  are  the  least  hand- 
some ;  as  birds  of  homeliest  plumage  are  mostly  gifted  with  the 
sweetest  song ;  but  this  White  Lily  has  a  perfume  equal  to  its 
beauty.  It  is  an  admirable  study  for  a  young  botanist:  the  parts 


38 


THE    FLORIST. 


are  so  large  and  distinct.  You  may  readily  count  the  six  stamens ; 
each  having  a  polished  white  filament,  on  the  extreme  point  of 
which  trembles  the  golden  anther,  with  its  sides  open,  and  the 
pollen  within  them  glittering  in  the  sun.  See 
the  six-furrowed  germ  in  the  base  of  the  flower, 
and  the  three-furrowed  style  ascending  from  it, 
and  crowned  with  the  triangular  downy  stigma ; 
the  whole  pistil  of  a  pale  and  delicate  green 
(Lilium  candidum,  fig.  4.)  The  pistil  nourish 
ing  the  young  fruit  in  its  bosom,  is  considered 
as  the  mother,  and  bears  a  Greek  name,  signify- 
ing wife ;  while  the  stamen,  which  supplies  her 
with  food  for  her  young  family,  is  termed  the 
husband.  Many  of  the  Linnaean  classes  are  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  the  stamens  ;  which  numbers  being 
expressed  in  Greek,  and  prefixed  to  the  word  ANDRIA  (husband,) 
form  their  names: — MON  ANDRIA,  the  first  class,  having  one  stamen ; 
Di ANDRIA,  the  second  class,  having  two  stamens,  &c.  The  same 
numbers  prefixed  to  the  word  GYNIA  (wife,)  distinguish  the  orders 
of  these  classes : — Monogynia  having  one  pistil ;  Digynia  having 
two  pistils,  &c.  This  Lily  is  of  the  class  HEX  ANDRIA  ;  order  Mo- 
nogynia: a  class  and  order  very  rich  in  magnificent  flowers; 
containing  Lilies  innumerable;  the  Pine-apple  (Bromelia;)  the 
5  Snowdrop  (Galanthus  nivalis,  a,  fig.  5;)  the 

Narcissus;  the  Star  of  Bethlehem  (Ornitho- 
galam  umbellatum,  6,  fig.  5;)  the  Tulip  (Tu- 
lipa;)  the  Tuberose  (Polyanthes;)  the  Hya- 
cinth, (Hyacinthus;)  the  aloes,  &c. — But  let 
us  continue  our  imaginary  walk.  How  luxu- 
riantly the  bushes  are  laden  with  Roses!  but 
these,  which  have  passed  their  prime,  make  a 
very  unsightly  appearance.  The  brown  and 
withered  petals  should  be  crumbled  off.  Many 
have  been  cankered  to  the  heart,  and  may 
be  cut  away  altogether ;  but  we  must  be  careful  not  to  destroy 
such  as  are  likely  to  produce  a  berry;  for  the  heps  of  the  Rose- 
tree  will  bestow  their  beauty  on  us,  when  the  garden  is  less  rich 
in  ornament  than  it  is  at  present;  and  we  can  better  bear  their 
present  decayed  appearance,  than  the  want  of  their  berries  in  a 
gloomier  season.  We  can  only  crumble  off  the  petals; — but  that 
will  be  an  improvement. 


THE    FLORIST. 


39 


Look  at  the  calyx  of  this  Rose  (Fig.  6) — these  green  leaves 
underneath  the  flower.  Observe,  there  are  five  of  them,  all  con- 
nected at  the  base ;  two  are  simple  leaves  (or, 
rather,  segments, — being  united  below) ;  two 
others  are  set  on  each  side,  with  smaller  leaves ; 
the  fifth,  as  though  uncertain  which  of  the  two 
examples  to  imitate,  has  one  side  simple,  and 
the  other  edged  with  leaflets.  Many  species  of 
tho  Rose  have  this  sort  of  calyx,  and  it  is  a  very 
cwiousone. — The  Rose  claims  precedence  even 
of  the  Lily  in  poetic  rank.  The  species  are 
almost  innumerable:  we  have  two-and-twenty  natives;  and  our 
gardens  exhibit  others  from  all  quarters  of  the  world:  several 
from  Persia,  "  the  land  of  Roses;"  China  furnishes  some  of  the 
lighter  and  crisper  species;  Syria  sends  the  Damask  Rose,  and  the 
Double  Yellow  Rose,  which  the  air,  or  the  smoke  of  London,  strikes 
with  an  almost  instant  death.  Even  Siberia  has  her  Roses.  Ame- 
rica affords  many;  and  we  have  a  few  from  Africa,  of  which  the 
Musk  Rose  is  one.  Art  has  transformed  the  Rose  to  blue,  and  even 
to  black;  but  as  its  natural  colours  are  far  more  agreeable,  at 
least,  than  the  latter,  we  will  not  dwell  on  these  strange  tastes  at 
present.  Look  around  you:  what  an  endless  variety!  Here  are 
Yellow  Roses,  and  White ;  Reds  of  all  shades,  from  the  faintest  blush 
to  the  richest  crimson.  Here  is  the  variegated  Rose  of  Florence, 
streaked  with  red  and  white.  Nor  is  the  variety  in  colour  only: 
from  the  single-petalled  Eglantine,  to  the  swelling  luxuriance  of 
the  Cabbage  Rose,  they  present  every  gradation  of  form,  size,  and 
fulness ;  of  luxuriance,  both  of  leaf  and  blossom. 

The  Damask  and  Provins  Roses,  when  in  the  height  of  their 
season,  are  very  magnificent.  Linnaeus  considered  the  Moss  Rose 
as  only  a  variety  of  the  Provins.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  finest  of  them 
all;  but  it  is  not  very  easy  to  decide:  they  all  have  their  merits. 
The  warm  richness  of  the  Damask  Rose;  the  delicate  blush  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  full  white  flowers;  the  light  crispness  of  the 
Chinese  species ; — all  are  beautiful.  Some  think  the  season  of  Roses 
on  the  decline  at  the  end  of  June;  but  we  have  many  of  them 
through  July ;  some  through  August,  or  even  September :  and  one 
or  two  of  the  Chinese  Roses  bloom  throughout  the  year.  The 
White  Rose  of  China  flowers  from  June  to  September ;  the  Red, 
from  March  to  October;  and  the  Chinese  Monthly  Rose  is  so 
called,  because  it  blows  every  month.  These  are  not,  indeed,  very 
4 


40 


THE    FLORIST. 


luxuriant,  but  they  are  delicate  and  graceful;  compared  with  the 
fuller  species,  they  are  as  the  Persian  Lilac  compared  with  the  Com- 
mon, or  the  Scotch  Lilac.  (Fig.  7,  a,  Cabbage  Rose,  and  6,  Chi- 
nese Monthly  Rose.) — I  remember  somewhere  to  have  read  a  story 
of  a  youth,  who,  hesitating  in  his  choice  be- 
tween two  young  ladies,  by  both  of  whom  he 
was  beloved,  was  brought  to  a  decision  by 
means  of  a  Rose.  It  happened  one  day,  as  all 
the  three  were  wandering  in  a  garden,  that 
one  of  the  girls,  in  haste  to  pluck  a  new-blown 
Rose,  wounded  her  finger  with  a  thorn :  it  bled 
freely;  and,  applying  the  petals  of  a  White 
Rose  to  the  wound,  she  said,  smilingly,  "  I  am 
a  second  Venus:  I  have  dyed  the  White  Rose 
red."  At  that  moment  they  heard  a  scream; 
and  fearing  the  other  young  lady,  who  had 
loitered  behind,  had  met  with  some  accident,  hastened  back  to 
assist  her.  The  fair  one's  scream  had  been  called  forth  by  no 
worse  an  accident  than  had  befallen  her  companion.  She  had 
angrily  thrown  away  the  offending  flower,  and  made  so  perti- 
nacious and  fretful  a  lamentation  over  her  wounded  finger,  that 
the  youth,  after  a  little  reflection,  resolved  on  a  speedy  union  with 
the  less  handsome,  but  more  amiable,  of  the  two  young  friends. 
Happy  would  it  be  for  many  a  kind-hearted  woman,  did  she  know 
by  what  seeming  trifles  the  affection  of  those  whom  she  loves  may 
be  confirmed  or  alienated  for  ever! 

There  is  a  strange  confusion  among  the  Roses.  Some  say  the 
Provins  is  the  same  with  the  Cabbage  Rose,  but  distinct  from  the 
Hundred-leaved.  Some  say  this  latter  species  is  the  same  with  the 
Provins,  excluding  the  Cabbage  Rose.  Others  suppose  the  Cab- 
bage and  the  Hundred-leaved  to  be  the  same  species,  but  differing 
from  the  Provins.  Miller  tells  us,  that  the  Provins  is  named  the 
Cabbage  Rose,  from  its  full  cabbage-like  form;  and  describes  die 
Hundred-leaved  (Rosa  centifolia)  as  a  different  species,  yet  fuller, 
and  having  a  number  of  small  petals  still  folded  hard  and  tight 
over  the  stamens  and  pistils,  when  the  flower  is  so  full  blown  that 
the  outer  petals  fall  around  the  stalk.  The  Rosa  Gallica  is  the 
same  with  the  English  Rose,  and  is  the  officinal  Rose  of  the 
druggists  and  distillers.  A  striped  variety  of  this  is  often  con- 
founded with  the  York  and  Lancaster,  which  is  a  variety  of  the 
Damask  Rose.  Many  persons  believe  a  Damask  Rose  to  be,  neces- 


THE    FLORIST. 


41 


sarily,  crimson ;  and  the  deep  red  Rose  of  China  is  very  com- 
monly termed  the  Damask  China  Rose;  which  is  like  talking  of 
a  French  Turk.  The  Damask  Rose  is  the  Rose  of  Damascus. 

What  is  that  magnificent  plant  which  grows  so  high  and  close 
near  yonder  arbourl  It  is  very  like  one  of  our  native  plants, — 
the  Viper's  Bugloss;  but  the  flowers  are  too  regularly  formed. 
Oh!  it  is  the  Siberian  Comfrey  (Symphyton 
asperrimum,  fig.  8.)  See  how  it  is  covered 
with  drooping  flowers!  every  cluster  display- 
ing many  shades  of  red  and  blue.  The  tube 
is  full  of  honey :  we  cannot  pluck  a  blossom 
without  contending  for  it  with  the  bees.  These 
red  stamens  are  very  handsome,  issuing  from 
the  blue  corolla;  there  are  five  of  them.  It 
is  in  the  fifth  class.  Of  all  the  four-and- 
twenty  classes  into  which  Linnaeus  has  divided 
the  whole  vegetable  kingdom,  the  last  only 
bears  any  comparison,  in  extent,  with  this ;  it  is 
subdivided  into  seven  orders,  determined  by  the  number  of  pistils. 
The  last  five  orders  together  do  not  comprehend  a  sixth  part  of 
the  class;  the  first  two  are  very  large.  To  the  first  order,  Mono- 
gynia,  belong  most  of  the  bell-shaped  flowers,  having  a  corolla 
of  one  petal,  to  which  the  five  stamens  are  affixed,  as  you  see  in 
this  Comfrey.  The  Convolvulus  is  of  the  same  class  and  order,  and 
has  the  same  characters:  if  you  split  it,  and 
spread  it  open,  you  will  see  the  stamens  af- 
fixed to  it  (Fig.  9.).  They  are  not  of  equal 
length ;  but  although  this  inequality  is  some- 
times made  a  generic  distinction,  it  does  not 
affect  the  class,  unless  the  number  of  stamens 
be  four  or  six.  These,  though  unequal,  are 
not  irregular:  the  longer  and  the  shorter  are  alternate.  The 
pistil  remains  in  the  calyx.  The  second  order  of  the  class  contains 
most  of  the  flowers  termed  umbelliferous  (umbel-bearing.)  An 
umbel  is  a  cluster  of  flowers  on  separate  stalks,  all  meeting  at 
the  same  point,  like  the  springs  of  an  umbrella  reversed.  The 
stalks  which  support  these  umbels,  being  again  assembled,  many 
together,  at  one  point,  form  a  compound  umbel ;  and  most  of  the 
plants  which  have  their  flowers  so  disposed,  belong  to  the  second 
order  of  the  fifth  class. 

The  first  order  contains  the  handsomer  flowers.     To  this  be- 
longs the  lovely  little  Forget-me-not  (Myosotis  palustris,)  which 


THE    FLORIST. 


has  been  so  frequently  lauded  in  verse,  by  Mrs.  Opie,  and  other 
poetical  writers ;  and,  if  I  mistake  not,  may  also  boast  of  a  com- 
pliment in  prose,  from  the  poet,  Coleridge.  We  have  many  beau- 
tiful native  flowers,  nearly  connected  with  this;  but  they  are 
excluded  from  the  garden,  on  account  of  the  coarse  texture  and 
appearance  of  their  foliage.  It  is  remarkable,  that  most  of  the  blue 
flowers  in  this  class  are  pink  in  the  bud.  This  you  may  observe  in 
all  the  species  of  Myosotis;  in  the  Alkanet  (Anchusa) ;  Hounds'- 
tongue  (Cynoglossum,)  &c.  This  latter  flower  is  of  the  finest 
blue  imaginable.  I  fear  I  cannot  point  it  out  to  you,  for  it  is, 
probably,  past  flowering:  but  we  may  find  a  lingering  blossom. 
Of  this  class  is  the  fragrant  Heliotrope,  in  the  green-house;  but 
the  green-house,  the  garden,  the  woods,  lanes,  and  meadows, 
are  so  rich  in  Pentandrous  beauties,  that  I  cannot  pretend  to  enu- 
merate an  hundredth  part  of  them.  Among  them  are  the  Prim- 
rose, the  Cowslip,  the  Violet,  the  Cyclamen,  the  Campanula,  the 
Honeysuckle,  that  elegant  Periwinkle,  with  its  broad  shining 
leaves;  this  little  flower,  too,  a  weed,  it  is  true,  and  one  that  should 
be  driven  from  the  garden's  boundary,  but  which  one  can  scarcely 
find  heart  to  banish;  not  only  because  it  is  so  pretty  in  itself,  but 
because  its  wide-spread  blossoms  denote  fair  weather.  If,  when 
the  sun  is  up,  this  flower  be  still  found  sleeping,  I  would  advise 
you  not  to  stray  far  from  home;  for  you  may  expect  rain.  So  accu- 
rate is  the  intelligence  it  gives  on  this  point,  that  it  is  generally 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Shepherd's  Weather-glass.  It  is  also 
called  Scarlet  Pimpernel  (Anagallis  arvensis,)  and  acquires  addi- 
tional interest,  from  the  fact  of  its  being  one  of  the  only  two  scarlet 
(lowers  indigenous  to  England.  Many  red 
flowers  there  are;  but  this  and  the  poppy  are 
the  only  scarlet  ones.  That  handsome  plant, 
which  you  see  climbing  by  the  side  of  the  jas- 
mine, is  one  of  this  wealthy  class:  a  great  and 
rather  a  late  acquisition  to  our  gardens.  It  is 
a  Mexican  plant,  called  the  Climbing  Cobcea 
(Cobcea  scandens,  fig.  10,)  brought  into  Eng- 
land in  the  year  1800,  but  only  within  the  last 
few  years  introduced  into  the  open  garden, 
which  it  adorns  with  its  fine  flowers  for  six 
months  in  succession.  A  Botanist  would  judge 
this  to  be  a  Pentandrous  flower,  before  he  examined  it;  and  the 
botanical  student  soon  discovers  that  flowers  are  more  readily 
understood  than  at  first  appears ;  for  most  of  the  classes  have  a 


THE    FLORIST. 


43 


general  aspect  peculiar  to  themselves,  which  a  little  experience 
teaches  us  to  detect  at  a  glance.  The  names  of  the  classes  and 
orders  only,  alarm  many  persons ;  but  if  they  were  to  look  at 
them  boldly,  they  would  find  them  not  so  great  strangers  as  they 
believe  them  to  be.  In  the  vegetable  system,  as  in  many  other 
things,  a  habit  of  order  and  arrangement  appears  troublesome 
at  first,  but,  ultimately,  saves  both  time  and  toil.  I  will  give  you 
a  specimen,  to  show  you  how  much  less  formidable  an  affair 
Botany  is  than  you  may  suppose. 

I  will  tell  and  explain  to  you  the  names  of  the  first  ten  classes. 
As  far  as  ten  they  proceed  regularly  onward,  the  number  of 
the  class  corresponding  with  the  number  of  stamens.  Besides 
their  number,  you  are  to  observe,  that  they  must  be  quite  distinct 
from  each  other;  and  when  there  are  four,  or  six,  that  two  are 
not  shorter  than  the  rest.  I  told  you  that  the  Greek  numbers 
were  prefixed  to  the  word  ANDRIA;  and  these  numbers  are  intro- 
duced so  often  in  English  compound  words,  that  they  are  tolera- 
bly familiar  to  us:  as,  monologue,  monarchy,  dialogue,  tripod, 
tetragon,  pentagon,  hexagon,  heptarchy,  octagon,  octavo,  decagon, 
decimate,  &c.  These  words  are  of  frequent,  I  may  say  almost 
daily,  occurrence.  Understanding  the  word  andria,  then,  these 
names  are  immediately  familiar  to  us: — 


1.  MON-ANDRIA,    One  Stamen. 

2.  DI-ANDRIA,         Two  Stamens. 

3.  TRI-ANDRIA,      Three  Stamens. 

4.  TETR-ANDRTA,  Four  Stamens. 

5.  PENT-ANDRIA.  Five  Stamens. 


6.  HKX-ANDRIA,  Six  Stamens. 

7.  HEPT-ANDRIA,  Seven  Stamens. 

8.  OCT-ANURIA,  Eight  Stamens. 

9.  ENNE-ANDRIA,  Nine  Stamens. 
10.  DEC-ANDRIA,  Ten  Stamens. 


To  proceed  in  our  stroll: — Those  Kalmias  are  handsome,  but 
somewhat  too  formal  and  pattern-like.  Are  not  these  Andromedas 
elegant?    Perseus  might  well  kill  a  sea-monster 
for  love  of  any  one  of  them.   One  of  the  finest  of 
our  hardy  shrubs  is  the  Arbutus  Unedo  (Fig.  11.) 
The  blossom  is  very  similar  to  the  Andromedas ; 
and  the  fruit  which,  like  the  orange,  hangs  side 
by  side  with  buds  and  blossoms,   is  beautiful 
and  fragrant:   it  is  well-flavoured,  too.      It  has 
been  said,  that  Pliny  distinguished  this  shrub 
by  the  name  of  Unedo,  to  signify  that  one  of 
the  berries  would  suffice  to  those   who  tasted 
them;   but  this  is  doing  the  berry  a  great  in- 
justice :  from  my  own  experience,  I  should  say,  that  some  straw- 
berries, commonly  so  called,  are  inferior  to  it,  both  in  consistency 
4* 


THE  FLORIST. 


and  flavour;  and  that  the  shrub  is  deservedly  named  the  Straw- 
berry tree.  This  friendly  tree  not  only  gives  us  the  shade  of  its 
evergreen  boughs,  throughout  the  summer,  but,  from  September 
to  December,  cheers  our  drooping  spirits  with  the  beauty  of  its 
rosy  offspring. 

The  poor  Syringa  has  lost  its  sweet  odours:  it  seldom  retains 
its  flowers  beyond  the  end  of  June;  but  they  come  with  the  breath 
of  May,  and  spread  their  delicate  cream-coloured  petals  almost 
is  lavishly  over  the  boughs  that  bear  them,  as  the  orange  itself. 
The  English  name  of  the  shrub  is  3Iock-Orange ;  but  it  is  more 
commonly  called  by  its  old  botanical  name  of  Syringa:  for  which 
Liniueus  substituted  its  present  appellation, — Philadelphia.  It  is 
the  Philadelphia  coronarius.  But  see,  what  is  this  plant  at  our 
feet,  with  its  delicate  leaves  and  rose-coloured 
flowers  1  Was  ever  anything  more  elegant'? 
It  is  the  beautiful  Fumatory  (Fumaria  forinosa, 
fig.  12.)  You  will  find  it  worthy  of  a  close 
examination:  it  is  as  curious  as  it  is  beautiful. 
You  see  it  has  six  stamens,  but  they  are  not 
distinct ;  they  are  joined  together,  three  on  each 
side ;  consequently,  the  plant  belongs  not  to  the 
sixth,  but  the  seventeenth  class, — Diadelphia. 
From  a  notion,  perhaps  a  mistaken  notion,  of 
the  union  of  brothers,  these  united  stamens 
have  been  styled  brotherhoods.  Each  set  of  united  stamens  being 
called  a  brotherhood,  the  class  to  which  it  belongs  is  named,  in 
reference  to  their  number,  Monadelphia,  Diadelphia;  or,  if  there 
be  more  than  two,  Polydelphia  (many  brotherhoods.)  In  these 
classes,  the  number  of  stamens  determines  the  order.  The  union 
is  mostly  at  the  base,  extending  upward,  more 
or  less ;  but  in  this  flower,  they  are  quite  dis- 
tinct at  the  base  and  at  the  top,  and  joined  in 
the  middle  only. — Most  of  the  Diadelphous 
flowers  are  in  the  order  DECANDRIA,  which 
is  chiefly  composed  of  the  papilionaceous, 
or  butterfly-shaped  flowers ;  such  as  the  Pea, 
Broom,  Laburnum,  &c.  It  may  be  considered 
as  a  poetic  license  to  speak  of  their  stamens 
as  forming  two  brotherhoods,  since  it  generally  happens,  that  nine 
are  united,  while  the  tenth  is  apart  and  alone  (Fig.  13.)  The 
tenth  are,  proverbially,  exclusive.  But,  in  justice  to  this  single 
filament,  I  must  say,  that  he  shows  great  willingness  to  associate 


THE  FLORIST.  45 

with  his  neighbours;  and  seems  rather  to  wish  to  be  thought  one  of 
diem,  than  to  form  a  separate  establishment:  in  some  few  instances 
he  is  admitted,  and  the  second  brotherhood  becomes  merely  nomi- 
nal. This  might  make  some  confusion,  but  that  we  know  every 
papilionaceous  flower  is  bound  to  lodge  ten  brethren,  of  whom  one 
is,  or  ought  to  be,  left  to  shift  for  himself.  He  is,  perhaps,  the  abbot, 
for  he  holds  the  highest  station;  and  where  we  find  him  not,  we 
may  suppose  the  flower  to  be  a  sort  of  republican  monastery, 
which  acknowledges  no  chief. 

It  is  observable,  that  the  Diadelphous  plants  most  commonly 
have  their  leaves  ternate  (set  by  threes,)  as  in  the  Laburnum, 
Clover,  &c. ;  or  pinnate,  (composed  of  several  leaflets  set  in  pairs, 
with  their  faces  all  turned  the  same  way,)  as  in  the  Acacias,  Peas, 
&c.  The  form  of  the  flower  is  remarkably  elegant,  and  has  very 
frequently  the  appearance  of  a  butterfly  just  about  to  take  wing. 
This  resemblance  has  not  been  overlooked  by  the  quick  eye  of  Poesy. 
One  of  her  children  thus  describes  the  flower  and  tendrils  of  the 
red  and  white  Garden  Pea  (Lathyrus  odoratus,)  which  gardeners 
call  the  Painted  Lady : — 

Here  are  sweet  peas  on  tip-toe  for  a  flight ; 
With  wings  of  gentle  flush  o'er  delicate  white. 

Painted  Lady  is  a  name  very  commonly  given  to  red  and  white 
flowers.  Some  of  the  Pinks  are  so  called;  and  one  of  the  Pelar- 
goniums ;  I  think  the  tri-colour.  Look  at  this 
Tulip-tree;  it  bears  a  very  strange  title; — the 
Tulip-bearing  Lily-tree  (Liriodendron  Tulipi- 
fera.)  The  blossoms  are  very  magnificent, 
be  they  Tulips  or  Lilies:  they  are  not  very 
like  either,  it  must  be  confessed.  The  leaves 
look  as  though  some  idler  had  amused  himself 
with  snipping  oft'  their  ends  (Fig.  14.)  The 
shooting  out  of  the  young  leaves  is  very  re- 
markable, and  deserving  of  attention. — What 
have  we  herel — A  plant  bedropped  with  gold!  Small  as  it  is,  it 
is  really  magnificent!  It  is  a  Swiss  plant,  called  Rhododendron 
hirsutum.  It  is  but  of  humble  stature,  compared  with  the  com- 
moner species;  but  though  deficient  in  size,  it  excels  in  splendour. 
How  is  it  that  this  shrub  is  so  seldom  seen'? — It  is,  I  believe,  one 
of  the  first  Rhododendrons  cultivated  in  this  country,  and  is  a 
hardy  shrub.  The  flowers  are  not  so  conspicuous  as  might  be 
expected  from  their  fine  hue  and  rich  gilding;  but  when  seen  near, 


46 


THE  FLORIST. 


they  are  like  a  collection  of  gems.  Every  part  of  the  flower  is 
covered  with  pellucid  glands  of  a  yellow  green,  or  of  a  golden 
colour;  in  some  parts,  the  two  colours  are  mingled;  and,  seen  with 
a  magnifier,  they  are  truly  admirable.  The  Kamschatka  Rhodo- 
dendron (Fig.  15)  is  very  difficult  to  cultivate; 
but,  surely,  it  might  be  less  rare  than  it  now 
is,  if  it  can  be  raised  in  this  climate  at  all  ! 
There  is  a  beautiful  figure  of  this  plant  in 
Pallas's  Flora  Rossica.  Rhododendron  is  the 
Greek  term  for  Rose-tree;  the  English  name 
for  the  genus  is  Rose-bay :  a  name  given  to  the 
Oleander  also ;  and,  by  some,  to  the  Camellia 
Japonica,  which  is  the  only  one  that  deserves 
it — that  is  really  like  a  bay  tree  bearing  Roses 
— superb  Roses!  Although  this  fine  shrub 
has  been  cultivated  in  England  for  upwards  of  eighty  years,  it  is 
not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  years  since,  that  I  heard  a  gardener 
ask  seven  guineas  for  one  scarcely  exceeding  a  foot  in  height,  and 
bearing  one  white  flower.  Within  the  last  few  years,  they  have  been 
less  rare,  and  more  reasonable ;  and  a  plant  of  the  same  size  may 
now  be  obtained  for  as  many  shillings.  One  great  charm  in  this 
Camellia  is  the  season  of  its  flowering:  from  the  miserable  month 
of  February,  until  the  merry  month  of  May,  it  spreads  its  gi- 
gantic Roses,  as  though  Flora,  to  show  her  independence  and  her 
power,  had  purposely  chosen  that  blank  season  for  one  of  her 
finest  productions.  When  the  Camellia  has  shed  its  flowers,  another 
showy  plant,  of  the  same  class,  Monadelphia, 
succeeds  it:  the  Tiger-flower,  of  Mexico  (Tigri- 
dia  Pavonia,  fig.  16.)  This  flower  comes  fiercely 
forth,  but  recedes  as  quickly;  it  has  scarcely 
shown  itself,  but  it  has  gone.  According  to 
our  old  friend  Gerard,  it  should  have  sprung 
from  woman's  tears ;  for,  speaking  of  another 
fragile  flower,  the  Venice-Mallow,  he  expresses 
a  doubt  whether  it  is  not  the  true  Adonis- 
flower.  "  Bion,  of  Smyrna,  an  ancient  poet,  in 
Adonis'  epitaph,  saith,  that  the  Wind-flower 
sprang  of  Venus'  teares,  whilst  she  was  weeping  for  Adonis;  but, 
doubtless,  the  plant  was  mistaken  by  the  poet,  considering  the 
fragilitie  of  the  flower,  and  the  matter  whereof  it  sprang;  that 
is,  the  teares  of  a  woman,  which  last  not  long,  as  this  flower,  called 
Flos  Horse,  the  flower  of  an  hower."  However  quickly  woman's 


THE  FLORIST. 


47 


tears  be  dried,  we  would  remind  old  Gerard,  were  he  among  our 
readers,  that  the  blood  of  Adonis  being  mingled  with  them,  might 
give  stability  to  the  Wind-flower,  (the  very  little  that  it  has) ;  not 
to  mention,  that  the  tears  of  a  goddess  may  be,  like  herself,  im- 
mortal. Since  Gerard  has  turned  our  attention  to  the  Mallows,  I 
17  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  my  regret,  that 

the  Syrian  Mallow  (Hibiscus  Syriacus,  fig.  17,) 
formerly  known  by  the  name  of  Althoea  fru- 
tex,  is  now  so  little  cultivated.  It  was  once 
a  favourite,  and  well  deserves  to  be  restored 
to  the  station  which  it  formerly  held. — But 
we  have  forgotten  our  purpose  to  be  useful 
here.  At  this  season  of  the  year  we  are  lost 
amid  the  manifold  beauties  that  surround  us. 
Don't  you  admire  this  sweet  Scabious'?  Ob- 
serve how  finely  the  white  stigmas  and  anthers 
contrast  with  the  deep  rich  purple  florets.  You  cannot  see  the 
anthers  in  that  flower;  here  is  one  in  a  more  forward  state,  and 
you  may  see  them  distinctly, — four  in  each  floret.  You  will  imme- 
diately pronounce  it  to  be  of  the  class  TETRANDRIA.  It  has  an 
aggregate  flower,  composed  of  several  florets  growing  together  in 
one  receptacle;  and  in  one  calyx  too,  although  each  floret  has  a 
double  calyx  of  its  own.  It  is  the  Scabiosa  atro- 
purpurea.  The  French  call  it  Fleur  de  Veuve 
(Widow-flower) ;  the  Italians,  Vedovina,  (Little 
Widow.)  The  odour  of  it  is  very  sweet,  but 
rather  faint. — This  shrub  (Fig.  18)  has  aggre- 
gate flowers  too,  and  is  very  fragrant;  it  has 
the  scent  of  honey  from,  rather  than  for,  the 
hive;  and  the  florets  collected  together  in  heads, 
with  their  gaping  mouths,  look  not  unlike  the 
honey-comb.  It  is  called  the  Buddlea  globosa: 
Buddlea,  from  Adam  Buddie,  a  botanist,  whose 
Herbarium  is  still  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum;  and  globosa,  from  the  round  heads  of  the  flowers. 
This  mode  of  naming  plants  from  persons  has  become  but  too 
general.  I  know  that  it  has  many  defenders,  who  say  that  it  is 
impossible  to  give  appropriate  names  to  every  plant.  They  con- 
tend, that  when  a  plant  is  named  from  some  particular  character, 
the  epithet  will,  not  unfrequently,  be  rendered  inappropriate 
afterwards,  by  the  discovery  of  other  species,  partaking  in  a  greater 
degree  of  that  character;  but  that  refers  to  the  specific  names 


OP   T 


48 


THE  FLORIST. 


only ;  and  it  is  mostly  the  generic  appellation  that  is  borrowed  from 
men.  When  a  genus  is  named  from  such  men  as  Linnaeus,  Jussieu, 
Tournefort,  Sir  James  Edward  Smith,  &c.  the  honour  is  reciprocal 
and  just;  but  when  named  from  persons  who,  however  devoted 
to  Botany,  are  obscure  and  unknown,  I  cannot  but  think  it  ob- 
jectionable. It  not  only  destroys  all  sense  of  distinction,  and 
turns  what  was  once  thought  a  mark  of  honour,  into  a  mere  com- 
mon-place compliment;  but  it  is  losing  the  opportunity,  of  which 
Linnaeus  so  admirably  availed  himself,  of  expressing  some  peculiar 
character  or  habit. — This  Fraxinella  spreads  its  sweet  perfume 
over  the  whole  garden.  It  is  an  exquisite  plant 
altogether!  The  petals  are  elegantly  disposed; 
the  stamens  too,  gathering  together,  and  drop- 
ping downward  to  complete  the  star  which 
the  upward-pointing  petals  had  left  unfinished 
(Fig.  19.)  The  leaves  are  pinnate ;  and  pinnate 
leaves  have  always,  more  or  Jess,  a  lightness 
that  is  peculiarly  graceful,  and  well  adapted  to 
this  "  starry-pointing5*  flower.  Yes;  even  the 
stamens  point  to  the  stars  ;  for,  although  they 
droop  downward,  they  curl  round  their  rubied 
tips  and  point  them  upwards.  This  is  the  Red  Fraxinella  (Dic- 
tamnus  rubra.)  And  is  that  alH  Only  red  7  I  will  tell  you  the 
truth:  the  petals  are  rose-coloured,  streaked  with  crimson:  the 
filaments  are  rose-coloured,  set  with  rubies;  the  anthers  green, 
shedding  a  yellow  pollen;  the  calyx  deep  crimson,  and,  as  well 
as  the  backs  of  the  petals,  strewed  with  rubies  or  garnets ;  some 
of  which  hang  upon  the  flower-stalks  also.  How  many  different 
colours  go  by  one  name  in  the  language  of  botanists  !  and  how 
many  different  names  are  given  to  one  colour!  It  would  be  an 
excellent  thing,  if  some  one  would  invent  notes  to  express  colours 
and  perfumes,  in  all  their  shades  and  varieties,  as  we  do  sounds. 
But  I  have  more  to  say  of  this  fragrant  plant:  even  its  fruit  is 
adorned  with  gems.  It  is  rather  large  for  the  size  of  the  flower; 
and  like  the  flower,  is  somewhat  star-like  in  form ;  and  here,  too, 
lodges  as  sweet  a  perfume  as  the  flower  itself  affords.  This  is  one 
of  the  plants  one  regrets  to  find  so  rare.  It  is  curious  that  I  never 
saw  this  before  the  present  summer;  when,  in  Macpherson's  nur- 
sery-ground, at  Highgate,  I  saw  that  and  the  Fumaria  formosa, 
both  for  the  first  time,  and  was  inclined  to  run  away  with  the 
whole  beds  that  contained  them;  yet,  at  the  same  time,  so  fearful  of 
shortening  the  life  of  one  of  the  blossoms,  that  I  could  scarcely 


THE    FLORIST.  49 

have  heart  to  pluck  one  for  examination,  though  the  proprietor 
had  granted  me  unlimited  license.  There  is  a  white  Fraxinella, 
which  has  its  white  flowers,  &c.  bedecked  with  emeralds  and 
aqua-marinas,  instead  of  rubies  and  garnets. — Behold  this  noble 
Magnolia  (M.  grandiflora,  fig.  20);  how  finely  these  large  flowers 
show  against  the  laurel-like  leaves!  Gi- 
gantic laurel  leaves,  indeed!  They  are  like 
"  two  single  laurel-leaves  rolled  into  one." 
Here  is  another  species  (M.  glauca):  see 
the  delicate  silvery  down  on  the  backs  of 
the  young  leaves!  They  are  as  soft  and 
smooth  as  satin ;  the  older  leaves  are  some- 
what leathery.  These  fine  shrubs  are  from 
North  America,  where  vegetation  in  ge- 
neral is  on  a  much  grander  scale  than  in 
Europe. — Now  that  we  have  been  so  very 
useful  in  the  garden,  suppose  we  look  into  the  green-house  for 
half  an  hour. 

We  have  improved  the  appearance  of  the  Rose-trees  during 
our  gossip. 

Here, — go  with  us,  fair  reader,  we  pray  you,  to  the  green- 
house, which  we  have  in  our  mind's  eye, — we  may  fancy  ourselves 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope:  we  are  surrounded  by  Heaths  and 
Geraniums;  mostly  from  that  country.  The  Heath  (Erica)  is, 
beyond  comparison,  the  largest  genus  in  the  class  OCTANDRIA, 
containing  several  hundred  species, — the  greater  number  very 
handsome.  The  Geraniums,  commonly  so  called,  compose  three 
distinct  genera,  in  the  class  Monadelphia.  They  were  all  included 
in  one  genus,  in  the  order  DECANDRIA;  but  the  stamens  being 
foun  1  to  vary  very  considerably  in  their  number,  it  was  thought 
advisable  to  arrange  them  under  the  orders  to  which  they  right- 
fully belong.  Those  with  five  stamens  were  placed  in  the  order 
PENTANDRIA,  and  styled  Erodium,  (Heron Vbill):  the  greater 
number  being  furnished  with  seven  stamens,  were  removed  to  the 
order  HEPTANDRIA,  with  the  name,  Pelargonium,  (Stork's-bill) ; 
those,  with  very  few  exceptions,  are  natives  of  the  Cape,  and 
chiefly  shrubs:  those  with  ten  stamens  were  left  under  their  old 
name,  Geranium  (Crane's-bill,)  in  the  order  DECANDRIA.  The 
names  of  these  three  genera  have  reference  to  the  long  beaks  of 
the  seed-vessels,  which  are  very  peculiar,  and  curiously  constructed. 
They  all  partake  of  a  monkey-like  habit  of  imitation:  one  spe- 
cios  apes  the  Ivy;  another,  the  Heart's-ease ;  others,  the  Maple, 


50  THE    FLORIST. 

Celandine,  Southernwood,  &c. :  and  yet  there  is  a  general  family 
resemblance,  by  which  a  botanist  will  readily  recognise  almost  any 
one  of  them  at  first  sight.  This  Chinese  Primrose,  however,  (Pri- 
mula Sinensis,  fig.  21,)  might  easily  l>c  mistaken  for  one,  even  by  a 
botanist,  when  it  is  not  in  flower.  The  leaves 
are  very  Geranium-like.  Observe  how  their 
silken  down  glitters  in  the  sun!  It  is  not  often 
that  the  light  strikes  so  favourably  on  them; 
but  when  it  does  happen,  it  discovers  a  beauty 
in  their  scalloped  edges,  which  may  have  been 
overlooked  for  months.  It  is  just  now  coming 
into  blossom.  People  differ  widely  as  to  its 
time  of  flowering:  I  suspect  it  to  be  a  very  docile  plant,  that  may 
be  taught  to  flower  at  any  season.  It  is  a  groat  and  general  fa- 
vourite, and  more  commonly  known  than  is  usual  with  plants 
that  have  been  so  lately  cultivated  in  England.  It  was  intro- 
duced in  1820.  In  addition  to  the  delicacy  of  the  blossom,  and 
the  elegant  appearance  of  the  whole  plant,  it  lias  another  ad- 
vantage, in  flowering  during  the  autumn  and  great  part  of  the 
winter. — But  this  is  the  plant  for  scent!  This  is  "  the  shrub  of 
smell  divinest!" — the  Citron-scented  Vervain.  It  was  formerly 
considered  as  a  species  of  Verbena,  and  is  still 
familiarly  called  a  Vervain;  though  botanists 
have  removed  it  to  another  genus,  and  distin- 
guish it  by  the  appellation  of  Aloysia  citriodora 
(Fig.  22.)  This  shrub,  and  the" Peruvian  He- 
liotrope (Heliotropium  Peruvianum,)  are  two 
of  the  sweetest  in  the  green-house.  The  odour 
of  the  Heliotrope  is  in  the  blossom;  that  of 
the  Vervain  is  in  the  leaf.  It  is  not  merely 
Citron -seen  ted,  as  described;  I  should  com- 
pare its  perfume  to  that  of  the  Citron,  combined 
with  the  taste  of  the  Cherry  and  the  Almond.  In  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  and  some  of  the  south-western  counties,  this  fragrant 
shrub  flourishes  well  in  the  open  air;  but,  in  other  parts  of  Eng- 
land, it  is  treated  as  a  green-house  plant,  like  the  Myrtle;  which, 
also,  blooms  in  the  open  gardens  in  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  In  the  whole  of  that  garden  island,  but  more 
especially  on  the  southern  side,  Myrtles  are  soon  rising  above  the 
first-floor  windows  of  the  houses.  One  lions",  in  particular,  is 
noted  as  being  nearly  covered  with  this  shrub;  it  is  at  Shanklin; 
and,  if  I  remember  rightly,  is  the  parsonage-house.  I  should 


THE   FLORIST.  51 

doubt  whether  Italy  herself  could  exhibit  finer  Myrtles  than  that 
delightful  "  ocean  gem."  They  are  chiefly  of  the  large-leaved 
kind;  and  so  luxuriantly  covered  with  blossoms,  as  to  leave  it 
doubtful  whether  the  green  or  the  white  be  predominant.  Were 
the  blossoms  but  one  degree  less  beautiful,  one  might  think  the 
shrub  almost  too  richly  clothed. — I  have  seen,  too,  in  that  island, 
some  beautiful  and  very  luxuriant  specimens  of 
the  Blue  Passion-flower  (Passiflora,  fig.  23.) 
The  rose-coloured  species  was  the  first  culti- 
vated in  this  country;  but  the  blue  is  so  hardy, 
and  hangs  so  fine  a  drapery  over  walls  and 
houses,  that  it  is  much  more  common  than  the 
other:  the  flowers  are  large  and  handsome; 
and  the  leaves  assume,  in  autumn,  a  vivid  crim- 
son that  is  exceedingly  beautiful;  more  espe- 
cially when  wandering  over  a  white  wall.  This 
plant  was  named  Passion-flower  from  a  fanciful  notion  that  it 
represented  the  instruments  of  Christ's  passion,  of  which  Harte 
describes  it  as  an  emblem : — 

All  beauteous  flower!  whose  centre  glows 
With  studs  of  gold  ;  thence  streaming  flows 

Ray-like  effulgence.     Next  is  seen 
A  rich  expanse,  of  varying  hue, 
Enfring'd  with  an  empurpl'd  blue, 

And  streak'd  with  young  Pomona's  green. 

High  o'er  the  pointal,  deck'd  with  gold, 
(Emblem  mysterious  to  behold !) 

A  radiant  cross  its  form  expands  ; 
Its  op'ning  arms  appear  t'  embrace 
The  whole  collective  human  race, 

Refuge  of  all  men,  in  all  lands. 

The  shrub  which  grows  near  it  has  remarkably  fine  leaves ; 
I  always  think  they  seem  properly  to  belong  to  the  Sun-flower: 
every  leaf  appears  as  though  it  must  have  a  sun  of  its  own  to 
shine  on  it,  and  produce  so  burnished  a  face.  It  grows  very  fast; 
and  would  soon  be  climbing  after  the  sun,  and  smothering  all  its 
neighbours,  in  its  progress,  were  it  not  continually  clipped.  The 
flowers,  at  this  distance,  are  scarcely  visible:  they  are  not  un- 
handsome when  seen  near;  but  being  of  a  dark,  dull  purple,  they 
make  but  little  show  in  the  vicinity  of  its  fine  shining  leaves.  But 
I  have  not  told  you  what  it  is  called :  it  is  the  Periploca  Graeca,  and 
is  worthy  of  the  tasteful  land  of  which  it  bears  the  name. 

This  Hydrangea  wants  water.  It  is  true,  that  great  drinkers 
5 


52  THE    FLORIST. 

being  necessarily  quick  drinkers,  revive  as  speedily  when  supplied, 
as  they  droop  when  not  supplied,  with  water;  but  the  frequent 
faintings  that  many  are  doomed  to  undergo,  cannot  but  be  inju- 
rious to  them.  The  thirsty  nature  of  the  Hydrangea,  is  well 
expressed  in  its  name;  but  this  being  a  foreign  one,  it  would  not 
be  amiss  to  give  it  an  English  name,  of  the  same  signification. 
Such  names  (English  as  well  as  Latin)  as  express  the  peculiar 
habits  of  the  plant,  would,  in  many  instances,  be  found  useful; 
and  would  help  those,  in  the  management  of  their  plants,  who 
are  not  acquainted  with  their  history.  The  Cistus  loves  the  sun; 
the  Violet,  the  shade;  the  Myrtle  loves  the  sea-shore;  the  Hy- 
drangea loves  water;  and  the  Celandine  delights  in  chalk.  All 
these  tastes,  and  many  others,  might  be  expressed  in  their  names; 
thus  people  might  know  how  to  treat  exotics,  and  where  to  seek 
for  natives.  These  significant  names  are  much  neglected,  even 
in  botanical  language,  of  late,  notwithstanding 
the  example  of  Linnaeus. — It  is  a  grand  thing 
to  have  this  Cape  Jasmin  (Gardenia  Florida, 
fig.  24,)  so  long  in  flower!  From  June  till 
October  these  fine  blossoms  are  out-rivalling 
the  leaves  in  beauty.  Large,  glossy,  evergreen 
leaves  are  always  handsome,  but  these  are  par- 
ticularly elegant.  It  is  a  pity  to  call  the  plant 
a  Jasmin;  for  it  neither  is  a  Jasmin,  nor  very 
closely  resembles  one. — Do  you  observe  the 
different -coloured  flowers  growing  on  this 
plant1?  Some  of  them  are  parti-coloured  in  themselves;  others 
are  wholly  red,  or  blue,  or  violet;  sometimes  they  are  white. 
It  is  the  Marvel  of  Peru,  commonly  called  Four  o'Clock  Flower, 
(a  name  which  it  bears  in  the  West  Indies  also,) — the  blossoms 
opening  at  that  hour  in  the  afternoon ;  and  that  so  regularly,  that 
it  has  been  frequently  used  as  a  signal  for  the  commencement 
of  the  toilet;  for  walking  out;  or  for  any  other  daily  exercise. 
Grainger,  in  his  poem  entitled  "The  Sugar-Cane, "  recommends 
the  planters  to  permit  their  slaves  to  retire  to  their  huts,  on  the 
opening  of  these  flowers,  and  seek  shelter  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  furnish  the  drug  culled  Jalap; 
and  was,  therefore,  named  Mirabilis  Jalapa:  that  drug  is  now 
understood  to  be  obtained  from  a  species  of  Convolvulus;  but 
the  name  having  once  been  given,  has  not  been  withdrawn. 
Whether  the  wonderful  property,  from  which  it  derives  its  ge- 
neric and  its  English  names,  be  the  regular  opening  of  its  flowers; 


THE    FLORIST.  53 

its  variety  of  colours;  or  the  beautifying  power  of  its  seeds, 
from  which  the  West-Indian  ladies  prepare  a  cosmetic,  I  am 
wholly  ignorant.  Rousseau  says,  that  the  wonder  was,  its  growing 
in  America:  everything  that  came  from  thence  being,  formerly, 
considered  as  wonderful.  This  Marvel  was  long  treated  as  an 
annual  plant;  but  it  has  been  ascertained,  that  the  root,  if  kept, 
during  the  winter,  in  dry  sand,  and  planted  again  in  the  spring, 
will  produce  flowers  for  several  years  in  succession.  Sometimes 
the  flowers  are  all  white,  or  all  red ;  the  leaves, 
too,  are  handsome  and  luxuriant  (Fig.  25.) 
— Here  is  a  plant  of  the  eleventh  class,  which 
I  think  I  need  not  introduce  to  you.  It  can 
have  no  business  in  the  green-house;  but,  I 
suppose,  is  not  to  be  dispensed  with  anywhere. 
What  can  have  made  this  little  plant  so  gene- 
ral a  favourite  1  It  is  sweet ;  but  many  others 
are  as  sweet,  and  much  handsomer,  that  have 
not  enjoyed  the  high  and  lasting  favour  be- 
stowed on  this.  Has  its  name,  Mignonette, 
(Little  Darling)  persuaded  people  that  they  ought  to  love  hi — 
This  plant,  botanically  named  Reseda  odorata,  is  naturally  an 
annual;  but  gardeners  have  contrived  to  make  a  tree  of  it.  It  is 
seldom  that  Art  succeeds  by  contradicting  Nature;  she  more 
commonly  shows  her  skill  in  imitating  or  in  aiding  her;  but,  in 
this  instance,  she  is  contradicted.  The  plant  is  forbidden  to  bear 
flowers;  which  Nature  having  instructed  it  to  do,  it  lingers  on 
earth,  until  permitted  to  obey  the  laws  of  its  mistress.  This 
eleventh  class  is  named  DODECANDRIA,  (twelve  stamened);  but 
the  number  of  stamens  varies  from  eleven  to  twenty.  The  twelfth 
class,  called  ICOSANDRIA,  (twenty  stamened,)  is  not  limited  to  that 
number,  either;  it  is  distinguished  from  the  next  class,  POLYAN- 
DRIA,  (many  stamened,)  by  other  characters  than  the  number  of 
the  stamens.  In  the  twelfth  class,  the  calyx  is  of  one  leaf,  and 
has  both  petals  and  stamens  affixed  to  its  rim.  In  the  thirteenth 
class,  the  stamens  are  fastened  to  the  receptacle,  which  is  the 
medium  by  which  the  flower  is  united  with  the  stalk.  If  you  eat 
a  Raspberry,  you  will  see  a  white  point  left  at  the  end  of  the 
stalk,  which  occupied  the  centre  of  the  fruit:  that  point  is  the 
receptacle.  The  twelfth  is  a  beneficent  class,  productive  of  many 
fine  fruits,  invariably  innocent.  The  Roses  are  of  this  class;  the 
fine  genus,  Mesembryanthemum ;  and  the  Cactus:  this  is  a  beau- 
tiful one,  commonly  called  the  Creeping  Cereus  (C.  Flagelliformis, 


54 


THE    FLORIST. 


fig.  26.)  I  could  almost  quarrel  with  Nature  herself,  for  giving 
such  leaves  to  so  fine  a  flower ;  but,  doubtless,  there  are  reasons 
for  it  which  we  do  not  comprehend.  I  ob- 
served to  you,  that  when  a  flower  had  four 
or  six  stamens,  of  which  two  were  shorter 
than  the  rest,  it  was  not  of  the  fourth  or  sixth 
class:  if  there  be  four  of  them,  the  flower  is 
in  the  fourteenth  class,  called  DIDYNAMIA, 
(two  powers) ;  as  if  to  signify,  that  the  tall 
pair  of  stamens  were  very  powerful  and  im- 
portant personages.  Thyme,  Mint,  Balm,  the 
beautiful  Foxglove,  and  the  Sweet  Basil,  which 
shaded  the  buried  head  of  the  lover  of  Boc- 
caccio's Isabel,  are  of  this  class. — The  cross-shaped  flowers,  bo- 
tanically  termed  the  cruciform,  chiefly  belong  to  the  fifteenth  class, 
TETRADYNAMIA,  which  has  four  tall  stamens, — one  to  guard  each 
petal,  while  the  humbler  pair  take  charge  of  the  honey-cups. 
Most  of  the  genera  of  this  class  have  a  little  pore  or  gland,  con- 
taining honey,  lying  within  the  shorter  stamens,  at  their  base;  it 
is  to  the  curve  they  make  to  inclose  these  glands,  that  theii 
difference  of  height  is  attributed.  The  Stock,  the  Wall-flower, 
Honesty,  &c.  are  of  this  class. 

The  next  three  classes  I  explained  to  you  before ;  but  I  did 
not  speak  to  you  of  the  nineteenth:  this  is  named  SYNGENESIA, 
(growing  together) ;  a  name  applicable  both  to  the  florets  and  their 
anthers.  The  flowers  are  aggregate;  being  composed  of  many 
perfect  florets,  growing  on  one  receptacle,  and  in  one  calyx;  and 
sometimes  accompanied  by  female  florets  also.  This  Daisy  is  a 
specimen:  let  us  examine  it  with  a  microscope.  Perhaps  you 
would  call  these  white  leaves  of  the  circumference,  petals:  they 
are  florets.  Take  one  off,  and  you  will  find  a  very  small  tube  at 
the  base,  containing  a  pistil.  (Fig.  27,  a,  white 
floret  magnified;  6,  yellow  floret  magnified; 
1,  is  the  seed;  2,  the  corolla;  3,  the  united  an- 
thers; 4,  the  cloven  pistil.)  The  centre,  or  as 
it  is  called,  the  disk  of  the  flower,  is  a  cluster 
of  tubular  florets  divided  at  the  top  into  five 
curling  lips,  and  each  containing  a  pistil  and 
five  stamens.  The  anthers  are  united  in  a  ring, 
through  which  the  pistil  passes  and  protrudes 
its  divided  stigma.  The  pistils  in  the  white  florets  are  formed  like 
the  other  pistils,  but  are  not  attended  by  the  gallant  guard,  by 


THE   FLORIST.  55 

which  those  in  the  centre  are  protected.  This  pretty  flower,  which 
Chaucer  so  fondly  petted  and  dandled,  is  named  Daisy,  from 
Day's-eye,  because  it  opens  and  closes  with  the  rising  and  the 
setting  sun.  If,  indeed,  it  please  Sol  to  take  a  nap  at  noon-day, 
and  clouds  supply  his  place  in  the  heavens,  the  little  Daisy  follows 
that  great  example,  and  sleeps  also: — 

And,  blushing  in  her  sleep,  she  shows 
The  vivid  colour  of  the  Rose 
Beneath  her  verdant  lashes. 

The  twentieth  class,  named  GYNANDRIA,  has  the  stamens  situ- 
ated on  the  pistil.  The  two  next  classes  are  a  fashionable  race; 
they  affect  the  manners  of  the  West-end:  in  the  twenty-first  class, 
the  stamens  and  pistils  inhabit  different  flowers,  but  on  the  same 
plant;  like  a  fashionable  pair  that  live  in  the  same  house,  but 
occupy  separate  apartments.  It  is,  therefore,  styled  MONCECIA, 
(one  house.)  In  the  twenty-second  class,  the  stamens  and  pistils 
keep  a  separate  establishment  altogether ;  lodg- 
ing, not  only  in  separate  flowers,  but  separate 
plants;  whence  it  is  named  DIGECIA,  (two 
houses.)  These  two  classes  include  many  of 
our  forest  trees.  The  Juniper  is  Dioscious. 
These  figures  represent  the  barren  and  the 
fertile  flowers  (Fig.  28);  those,  growing  in 
long  catkins,  like  caterpillars,  are  the  barren 
flowers ;  the  other  is  a  fertile  blossom,  and  is 
succeeded  by  the  berry  which  gives  its  flavour 
to  British  gin. — Nature  is  so  liberal  of  her 
treasures,  and,  supplies  us  so  largely,  even  with  luxuries,  that 
in  many  instances,  we  neglect  to  avail  ourselves  of  her  gifts. 
Commerce  makes  us  dainty.  We  procure  Tea  from  China,  and 
disdain  our  own  native  herbs.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  with 
a  little  pains,  we  might  find  a  native  Tea  quite  as  palatable  as  the 
foreign.  Let  us  consider  the  uses  of  the  Juniper  tree  alone,  and 
we  shall  see  the  many  advantages  that  may  be  derived  from  it. 
Sugar  is  obtained  from  the  berries ;  a  decoction  of  these  is  drunk 
by  the  Laplanders,  as  we  drink  coffee  or  tea ;  they  furnish  a  wine, 
called  by  their  name;  and  the  Swedes  prepare  a  beer  from  them, 
and  a  conserve  which  they  eat  at  breakfast.  The  Germans  use 
them  to  give  a  flavour  to  their  sauer-kraut.  The  Norwegians  infuse 
the  young  shoots,  with  a  little  barley,  in  some  warm  water,  "  which 
produces,"  says  Brookes,  "  a  weak,  but  not  unpleasant,  beverage." 
5* 


56  THE    FLORIST. 

The  berries,  wood,  and  young  shoots,  are  used  in  some  medicinal 
preparations.  The  berries  yield  an  oil,  which  is  applied  to  many 
purposes.  The  wood  is  hard,  and  peculiarly  durable;  and  is  used 
for  veneering,  making  cabinets,  &c.;  and  even  the  ashes  may  be 
turned  to  account.  The  tree,  though  small  in  a  wild  state,  affords 
timber,  when  cultivated.  A  gurn  exudes  from  it,  which  is  used 
in  the  preparation  of  varnish;  and,  when  dried  and  strained,  this 
gum  is  the  powder  known  by  the  name  of  pounce.  The  bark 
may  be  manufactured  into  ropes.  Such,  and  so  many,  are  the 
uses  of  the  Common  English  Juniper;  yet,  perhaps,  the  only  use 
to  which  it  is  generally  applied,  is  of  a  doubtful  character; — the 
preparation  of  gin.  This  is  by  no  means  the  most  valuable  of  our 
trees ;  we  have  scarcely  any  one  that  might  not  be  applied  to 
many  useful  purposes ;  and  many,  perhaps,  the  utility  of  which 
might  be  considerably  increased. 

A  plant  of  the  twenty-third  class  is  a  sort  of  lodging-house; 
it  is  named  POLYGAMIA,  (many  marriages,)  and  bears  three  kinds 
of  flowers, — some  with  both  stamens  and  pistils;  others,  with  the 
stamens  only;  and  others  with  the  pistils:  often  all  on  the  same 
plant ;  sometimes  on  two ;  and,  in  a  few  instances,  on  three  several 
plants.  The  last  class  cannot  be  hastily  explained  or  understood. 
I  will  set  before  you  the  latter  classes,  at  one  view,  as  I  did  the 
first  ten : — 

11.  DODECANDRIA,       Stamens,  from  eleven  to  twenty. 

12.  ICOSANDRIA,  Stamens,  twenty  or  more,  affixed  to  the   calyx  ;  the  petals, 

also,  are  fastened  to  the  calyx,  which  is  of  one  leaf. 

13.  POLYANDRIA,  Stamens,  many,  affixed  to  the  receptacle. 

14.  DIDYNAMIA,  Stamens,  four  :  two  shorter  than  the  rest. 

15.  TETRAD YNAMIA,  Stamens,  six :  two  shorter  than  the  rest. 

16.  MONADELPHIA,  Filaments  united  in  one  set. 

17.  DIADELPHIA,  Filaments  united  in  two  sets. 

18.  POLYADELPHIA,  Filaments  united  in  more  than  two  sets. 

19.  SYNGENESIA,  Many  florets  growing  in  one  receptacle  and  one  calyx  ;  anthers 

united  in  a  ring. 

20.  GYNANDRIA,  Stamens  situated  on  the  pistil. 

21.  MONCECIA,  Stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  plant. 

22.  DICECJA,  Stamens  and  pistils  on  separate  flowers  and  plants. 

23.  POLYGAMIA,  Perfect   flowers   on   the  same   plant,   with   fertile  or  barrer. 

flowers,  or  both. 

24.  CRYFTOGAMIA,       Not  to  be  hastily  explained. 

Ah!  here  is  the  beautiful  Cape  plant,  that  people  insist  upon 
calling  the  Arum  (Calla  Ethiopica.)  This  is  one  of  the  water- 
loving  plants;  and,  really,  it  is  very  spare  diet  for  one  so  magni- 
ficent; with  its  noble  flower,  that  looks  as  if  it  were  moulded 


THE    FLORIST.  57 

out  of  a  leathery  alabaster ;  and  its  large  arrow-shaped,  varnished 
leaves!  (Fig.  29.)  If  it  drank  Champagne,  it  would  be  worthy  of 
its  keep.  One  may  always  have  a  family  of 
these  plants,  for  they  produce  a  great  number 
of  off-sets,  which  being  taken  off  and  planted 
in  separate  pots,  grow  and  flower  in  endless 
succession. — I  could  find  much  amusement  in 
tending  all  these  plants ;  but  there  is  yet  more 
pleasure  in  rearing  them  oneself.  Those  who 
expend  the  most  time  and  the  least  money 
on  their  plants,  will,  probably,  derive  the  great- 
est pleasure  from  them.  It  is  not  every  one, 
who  loves  flowers,  that  can  afford  to  purchase  the  fine  exotics  of 
the  nurseries ;  but  every  one,  who  has  leisure,  may  rear  a  few 
flowers  from  the  seed,  and  transplant  native  roots.  Shrubs  and 
perennials  may  be  transplanted  from  the  open  country,  and 
annuals  may  be  sown  either  in  the  spring  or  autumn.  These  last 
will,  probably,  be  the  favourites.  No  plant,  however  handsome,  is  so 
precious  to  us  as  that  which  we  have  reared; — which,  by  Divine 
permission,  we  have  willed  and  caused  to  exist.  It  has  reference 
to  ourselves:  self-love  has,  doubtless,  a  large  share  in  the  pre- 
ference; but  it  is  a  very  innocent  modification  of  it;  and  while 
we  value  ourselves  upon  imitating  Nature,  at  however  humble  a 
distance,  we  cannot  be  far  wrong;  for  Nature  is  benevolent  as 
she  is  lovely. 

A  very  pretty  flower-garden  may  be  formed  of  native  plants 
only.  When  living  in  the  country,  I  have  frequently  trans- 
planted roots  from  the  neighbouring  lanes  and  meadows;  some 
into  the  open  garden,  others  into  the  house,  as  a  resource  when 
weather-bound.  To  those  who  reside  in  London,  and  love  the 
country,  there  is  a  charm  in  our  native  plants,  that  is  wanting  to 
exotics,  however  beautiful:  they  are  associated  with  a  variety  of 
rural  objects;  and  bring  before  the  imagination,  the  fields,  woods, 
hills,  and  dales,  whence  they  were  taken.  A  bunch  of  wild  flowers 
is  a  gallery  of  landscapes :  Daises  and  Butter-cups  represent  fields 
and  meadows ;  Germander,  Speedwell,  Herb  Robert,  and  Haw- 
thorn, are  thick  bushy  hedges  and  grassy  banks ;  Blue  Bells  and 
Primroses  are  shady  woods;  the  water  Violet  and  Yellow  Iris 
are  standing  pools;  the  Marsh  Marygold  is  a  running  brook;  and 
the  Forget-me-not,  a  gentle  river;  the  Blue-bottle  and  Corn- 
campion  are  fields  of  rising  corn ;  and  the  delicate  Vervain  is  a 
neighbouring  village.  Some  flowers,  by  association,  take  the 


58  THE    FLORIST. 

form  of  mills,  or  hay-stacks;  and  I  have  known  them  even  to 
portray  the  features  of  a  friend.  Were  I  condemned  to  an  eternal 
residence  in  the  metropolis,  the  sweetest  Jasmin,  the  finest  Moss 
Rose,  the  noblest  Camellia,  the  rarest,  handsomest,  and  most 
odorous  of  exotics,  would  have  less  value,  in  my  eyes,  than  a 
common  Field  Daisy;  and  a  pot  of  these,  when  in  London,  I  gene- 
rally contrive  to  have;  counting  the  coming  buds  as  a  miser 
would  count  his  guineas.  The  pretty  Heath- 
bell  (Campanula,  fig.  30,)  is  also  a  favourite: 
some  young  botanists  are  puzzled  by  the  spe- 
cific name,  rotundifolia,  which  is  applied  to  it, 
— the  upper  leaves  being  linear,  and  the  lower, 
decaying  very  early ;  but  if  several  be  drawn 
up  by  the  root,  some  will  be  found  to  retain 
the  lower  leaves,  which  answer  to  the  appel- 
lation.— To  those  who  study  plants  botanically, 
the  rearing  them  has  an  additional  charm :  it 
gives  us  an  opportunity  of  observing  them  in 
every  stage  of  their  growth,  and  of  seeing  the  changes  made  in 
wild  plants  by  cultivation.  If  a  plant  prove  handsomer  than  we 
had  reason  to  anticipate,  it  seems  to  reflect  a  sort  of  credit  on 
ourselves,  which  heightens  our  sense  of  its  beauty. 

Those  who  reside  in  the  country,  and  continually  see  trees 
and  flowers  around  them,  and  breathe  their  odour,  can  have 
but  a  faint  notion  of  the  delight  which  a  few  green  leaves  afford 
to  one  who  is  doomed  to  gaze  upon  brick  walls,  and  breathe  the 
smoke  of  London.  They  know  not  the  pleasure  of  arranging, 
petting,  and  cherishing,  a  few  flowers,  nor  the  importance  every 
green  leaf  acquires  under  such  circumstances.  Those  who  have 
but  few  flowers,  learn  to  make  the  most  of  them;  and  do  not 
crowd  them  together  so  that  one  half  of  them  are  hidden,  as  is 
the  case  with  bouquets  in  general.  If  you  make  the  experiment, 
I  think  you  will  allow,  that  they  look  more  beautiful  when  lightly 
grouped.  Another  thing  I  would  recommend  you  to  observe,  in 
the  mode  of  arranging  them; — put  many  flowers  of  a  kind  together, 
and  avoid  a  contrast  between  very  strong  and  very  opposite  colours. 
White  has  a  very  happy  effect  with  any  colour,  particularly  with 
red;  Red  and  White  Roses,  with  a  sprig  or  two  of  evergreen 
behind,  and  rising  a  little  above  them,  look  more  graceful  than 
when  mingled  with  a  variety  of  other  flowers;  if  there  be  a  defi- 
ciency of  White  Roses,  a  few  Lilies  may  be  substituted.  The 
large  White  Lily  harmonises  well  with  the  Red  Peony;  the 


THE    FLORIST.  59 

smaller,  with  the  Double  Red  Anemone.  Blue  and  yellow  flowers 
may  be  mingled;  but  rather  in  groups,  than  in  alternate  succes- 
sion. The  superiority  of  this  wholesale  grouping  may  be  seen  by 
a  visit  to  a  nursery-garden;  where  the  flowers  are  raised  in  broad 
beds,  not  indiscriminately  mingled.  Indeed,  nature  herself  so 
arranges  them:  though  her  variety  is  infinite,  she  is  as  far  from 
disorder  as  monotony; — her  colours  and  groupings  are  always 
tasteful. 

Flowers  in  water  should  have  a  fresh  supply  every  morning; 
the  dead  buds  and  decayed  leaves  should  be  taken  away,  and  the 
sodden  ends  of  the  stalks  cut  off.  All  the  leaves  should  be  re- 
moved from  that  part  of  the  stalk  which  is  concealed  within  the 
vase.  When  the  flowers  begin  to  hang  the  head,  and  to  show  a 
general  aspect  of  languor,  cut  off  the  ends  of  the  stalks  with  a 
sharp  knife,  and  put  them  about  two  inches  deep  in  warm  water 
for  a  few  minutes ;  the  water  should  not  be  actually  scalding,  but  as 
warm  as  you  can  hold  your  hand  in  without  a  sense  of  pain. 
The  moisture  will  make  its  way  into  the  vessels  of  the  stems ;  and 
if  they  be  taken  from  the  warm,  and  immediately  replaced  in 
fresh  cold  water,  the  flowers  will  revive,  and  yet  live  for  some 
days  or  hours  longer,  according  to  their  kind.  They  should  not 
be  exposed  to  a  hot  sun. 

If  you  receive  a  good  basket  of  flowers  from  a  country  friend, 
you  may  afford  to  sacrifice  the  immediate  beauty  of  a  few,  to  the 
future;  some  sprigs  of  Rosemary,  Geranium,  Wallflower,  &c.  may 
be  stripped  of  their  lower  leaves,  cut  obliquely  at  the  end  with  a 
sharp  knife,  and  inserted  about  half  their  length  in  a  pot  of  earth. 
This  done  in  spring  or  autumn,  they  will  put  out  roots,  and 
become  new  plants.  If  covered  with  a  glass,  they  will  root  the 
more  speedily.  It  is  not  easy  to  give,  very  minute  directions  for 
the  general  rearing  of  flowers,  because  different  plants  require 
different  management.  With  regard  to  air,  such  as  are  purchased 
from  a  green-house  must  not  be  exposed  to  the  cold  of  winter,  or 
of  sharp  autumnal  nights.  Perhaps  the  best  general  rule  that 
can  be  given  for  watering  plants,  is,  not  to  permit  the  surface  of 
the  earth  to  remain  dry ;  for,  in  proportion  to  the  quick  consump- 
tion of  water  will  be  the  drying  of  the  earth ;  and  a  little  obser- 
vation of  these  proportions,  will  enable  you  to  judge  of  the  quantity 
to  be  given  to  each  plant:  they  must  not,  any  more  than  yourself, 
drink  during,  or  immediately  after,  exposure  to  a  hot  sun.  If  too 
little  water  have  been  given  to  a  plant,  and  it  be  necessary  to 
give  it  a  fresh  supply  during  the  day,  let  it  first  be  removed  into 


60 


THE    FLORIST. 


the  shade.  Such  as  are  placed  in  the  open  ground,  will  not  be  so 
absolute  in  their  demands,  because  they  have  more  earth  to  draw 
upon  for  a  supply.  Plants,  when  removed  from  one  place  or  pot 
to  another,  should  have  their  decayed  and  sodden  fibres  cut  away ; 
the  roots  should  be  allowed  to  retain  their  natural  direction;  and 
the  plant  should  be  shaded  for  several  days  after  transplanting, 
that  it  may  not  perspire  more  than  its  strength  will  bear,  while 
living  upon  a  comparatively  spare  diet.  When  the  roots  have 
regained  their  accustomed  vigour,  the  plant  may  again  meet  the 
face  of  the  sun. 

We  introduced  this  subject  with  the  figure  of  a  fair  maiden 
collecting  flowers; — we  will  conclude  it  with  that  of  another  dis- 
tributing them.  We  might  select  the  pretty  Perdita,  who  bestows 
them  as  she  would  so  many  blessings;  of  which  she  thinks  life  is 
wholly  made  up ;  but  we  prefer  portraying  the  forsaken  Ophelia, 
who  bestows  them  with  a  difference;  and  of  whom  the  queen 
said,  after  her  death, — 

I  thought  thy  bride-bed  to  have  deck'd,  fair  maid; 
And  not  have  strew'd  thy  grave. 


MINERALOGY. 


Lo !  Vanity,  with  dazzling  gems  adorn'd, 
Flaunts  proudly  by  : — 
While  Science  pores  upon  a  specimen 
Rough  from  the  bosom  of  its  native  mine. 

HE  fragrant  beauties  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom having  engaged  our  attention  to  as 
great  an  extent  as  our  limits  would  permit, 
let  us  now  examine  the  dazzling  beauties 
that  lie  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
We  may  there  find  objects  to  rival,  in  our 
admiration,  the  plumage  of  the  humming- 
bird and  the  rich  tints  of  the  gayest  butterflies  and  flowers.  Among 
them  are  to  be  numbered,  Gold,  Silver,  the  precious  gems,  Marble, 
Jasper,  and  an  almost  endless  variety  of  minerals.  This  name  is 
given  alike  to  all  inanimate  productions  of  the  earth ;  from  the 
most  valuable  to  the  most  worthless.  We  have  little  occasion  to 
descend  into  the  mines,  from  which  specimens  are  obtained,  since 
they  are  much  more  conveniently  studied  when  arranged  in 
a  cabinet.  Let  us,  then,  proceed  to  examine  them  methodically; 
for,  exclusively  to  select  and  admire  those  which,  at  first  sight, 
please  the  eye,  would  be  not  only  uninstructive,  but  confusing. 

Minerals  consist  of  Earths,  Alkalis,  Metals,  and  Acids,  either 
simple  or  variously  combined ;  and  some  inflammable  substances, 
such  as  Coal,  Amber,  and  Sulphur.  Many  of  these  being  manu- 
factured into  various  articles  in  common  use,  are  already  familiar 


62  MINERALOGY. 

to  the  reader:  such  as  Gold,  Iron,  Copper,  Tin,  and  several  other 
Metals;  Alabaster,  of  which  vases  are  formed;  and  Marble,  which 
is  fashioned  into  slabs  and  chimney-pieces,  and  affords  the  mate- 
rial which  grows  into  beauty  under  the  chisel  of  the  sculptor; 
besides  these,  the  Sulphuric  and  Muriatic  Acids,  which  form  a  part 
of  many  minerals,  are  constantly  used,  under  the  names  of  oil  of 
vitriol  and  spirit  of  salt. 

A  knowledge  of  these  substances,  has,  since  the  earliest  ages, 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  learned ;  and,  in  latter  years,  has  even 
exercised  the  imagination  of  the  poet  : — 

Dull-ey'd  Naphtha  pours  his  pitchy  streams, 
And  Jet,  uncolour'd,  drinks  the  solar  beams  : 


Silvery  Selenite  her  crystal  moulds, 
And  soft  Asbestus  smooths  his  silky  folds  ; 
His  cubic  forms  phosphoric  Fluor  prints, 
Or  rays  in  spheres  his  Amethystine  tints. 

Gay-pictur'd  Mochoes  glow  with  landscape  dyes, 
And  changeful  Opals  roll  their  lucid  eyes  ; 
Blue  lambent  light  around  the  Sapphire  plays  ; 
Bright  Rubies  blush,  and  living  Diamonds  blaze. 

Chemical  investigation  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  proper- 
ties of  minerals ;  separates  them  into  their  elements,  and  enables 
us  to  distinguish  one  species  from  another,  by  ascertaining  its 
composition.  But  as  it  would  require  a  considerable  knowledge 
of  chemistry,  and  a  great  deal  of  time,  to  analyse  every  specimen, 
before  it  is  placed  in  a  collection,  it  is  desirable  that  a  collector 
should,  so  far  as  it  is  possible,  become  acquainted  with  the  out- 
ward appearance  and  some  other  properties  of  minerals,  which 
are  called  their  external  and  physical  characters.  Under  this  term 
are  comprised  their  external  form  and  colour;  their  structure; 
fracture,  or  appearance  when  broken;  hardness,  transparency,  or 
opacity;  lustre,  taste,  smell,  elasticity,  weight,  or  specific  gravity; 
magnetism,  electricity,  and  phosphorescence.  No  doubt,  most  of 
these  terms  are  clearly  understood  by  our  readers ;  but  some  of 
them  may  require  a  little  explanation. 

By  specific  gravity,  is  meant  the  weight  of  any  substance 
compared  with  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  distilled  water;  which, 
as  the  standard  of  comparison,  is  called  one .  Thus,  if  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  inch  of  water  be  called  one,  then  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
inch  of  gold  will  be  nineteen;  of  lead,  rather  more  than  eleven; 
of  iron,  above  seven  and  a  half;  and  their  specific  gravities  are 


MINERALOGY.  63 

said  to  be  19,  11.3,  7.6,  &c. — the  specific  gravities  of  minerals 
being  written,  for  convenience,  with  decimal  fractions. 

Some  minerals,  which  contain  a  large  proportion  of  Iron, 
attract  the  magnetic  needle  when  presented  to  it;  those  which 
attract  one  end  and  repel  the  other,  are  said  to  have  polarity. 

In  a  few  minerals,  electricity  is  produced  by  friction ;  as  in 
Amber  and  the  Topaz,  which,  after  being  rubbed  for  a  minute  on 
woollen  cloth  or  baize,  will  attract  small  scraps  of  thin  paper  and 
filaments  of  thread  or  wool ;  in  a  still  smaller  number,  it  may  be 
excited  by  the  simple  application  of  heat. 

A  phosphoric  light  is  emitted  by  some  minerals  when  heated. 

An  intimate  acquaintance  with  these  characters,  assists  us  to 
compare  one  mineral  with  another,  and  to  perceive  in  what  re- 
spects it  agrees  with,  or  differs  from,  those  which  we  either  know 
from  personal  experience,  or  the  descriptions  given  of  them  in 
Mineralogical  works. 

Minerals  may  be  divided  first  into  five  classes;  namely: — 

1.  EARTHY  MINERALS. 

2.  ACIDIFEROUS  EARTHY  MINERALS. 

3.  ALKALINE  SALTS. 

4.  METALS,  AND  THEIR  ORES. 

5.  INFLAMMABLE  MINERALS. 

Each  of  these  divisions  contains  one  or  more  families,  which 
are  a  collection  of  species,  different  in  some  respects,  yet  resem- 
bling each  other  in  a  few  of  their  principal  characteristics. 

EARTHY  MINERALS. 

In  the  first  class,  the  Silicious  Earth,  SILICA,  and  those  mi- 
nerals of  which  it  constitutes  the  greater  part,  occupy  a  distin- 
guished place.  In  its  purest  state,  it  is  called  Quartz;  and  is  often 
somewhat  granular,  but  more  frequently  crystallized  in  six-sided 
prisms,  terminated  by  six  or  three  faces, 
forming  a  pyramid.  When  the  prisms  are 
long  and  transparent,  they  are  termed 
Rock  Crystal  (Fig.l :)  very  brilliant  groups 
of  these,  some  colourless  and  others  faintly 
tinged  with  orange,  are  found  in  Dauphine, 
and  among  the  Alps.  There  is  no  neces- 
sity, however,  to  go  quite  so  far  to  obtain 
them,  as  very  good  specimens  are  brought  from  the  Cornish 
Copper-mines.  The  Cairn  Gorms,  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  from 
Scotland  and  Siberia,  and  the  beautiful  yellow  Rock  Crystal  of 
6 


64  MINERALOGY. 

Brazil,  are  varieties  of  Quartz ;  and  also,  the  violet-coloured  or 
purple  crystals,  so  well  known  by  the  name  of  Amethyst  (Fig.  2;) 
to  which  gem  the  ancients  attributed  the  miraculous  power  of 
counteracting  the  intoxicating  quality  of  wine;  for  which  reason, 
Pliny  says,  "  it  is  good  to  wear  a  ring,  or 
some  other  ornament,  made  of  this  stone, 
when  you  wish  to  drink  freely."  This 
advice,  Pliny,  of  course,  addressed  to  those 
of  his  own  sex.  The  Amethyst  is  now 
deemed  by  its  wearers  to  possess  a  charm, 
very  different  from  that  attributed  to  it,  by 
the  learned,  but  too  often  erroneous,  author  of  antiquity. 

The  Avanturine  Quartz  appears  filled  with  particles  of  Gold, 
an  effect  arising  from  very  minute  fissures ;  and  the  Cat's-eye,  of 
Ceylon,  much  esteemed  in  the  East,  as  an  amulet  of  great  efficacy, 
derives  its  satiny  lustre  from  a  fibrous  texture.  The  most  elegant 
of  all  the  species  of  Quartz,  is  the  precious  Opal,  which  reflects 
flashes  and  sparks  of  the  purest  and  most  brilliant  colours ;  on 
one  side  a  fine  rich  green  seems  to  grow  into  Gold,  and  on  the 
other,  a  sparkling  crimson  mells  into  a  violet  tint.  Independently 
of  these,  the  colour  of  precious  Opal  is  grayish  or  yellowish  white, 
the  common  Opal  is  of  a  darker  colour,  more  opaque,  and  has 
no  brilliant  reflections. 

In  Carnelian  and  Calcedony,  SILICA  is  united  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  ALUMINA  (Clay.)  The  former  is  generally  red,  or  milk- 
white,  and  occurs  only  in  the  form  of  pebbles,  of  various  sizes, 
the  finest  of  which  come  from  India;  the  latter,  which  is  a  variety 
of  it,  is  often  bluish  or  yellowish,  with  but  little  lustre,  and  has, 
externally,  a  bubbled  or  grape-like  form,  termed  botryoidal:  it 
forms  the  principal  part  of  most  Agates ;  especially  of  those  which 
fill  the  cavities  of  Basalt  rocks  in  the  Faroe  Isles,  Saxony,  and 
Oberstein,  in  the  Palatinate;  often  in  alternate  layers  of  white  and 
brown,  or  dark  gray.  Cameos  are  frequently  cut  from  Agates  of 
this  kind:  the  head  being  carved  in  the  white  Calcedony,  and  the 
brown  layer  forming  the  back  ground. 

Chrysoprase  derives  its  vivid  green  colour  from  the  oxyde  of 
a  scarce  metal,  called  Nickel:  it  is  translucent;  that  is,  it  trans- 
mits light;  but  not  sufficiently  to  be  called  semi-transparent. 
Blood-stone,  or  Heliotrope,  which  was  formerly  supposed  to  be 
an  antidote  against  bleeding,  by  applying  it  to  a  wound,  is  Cal- 
cedony, intimately  mixed  with  green  Earth,  which  imparts  to  it 
a  very  dark  colour;  the  red  spots,  with  which  it  is  frequently 


MINERALOGY.  65 

variegated,  are  Jasper ; — an  opaque  quartzose  mineral,  containing  a 
little  ALUMINA  or  Clay,  and  offering  a  variety  of  colours,  (red,  ochre- 
yellow,  brown,  and  sometimes  green,)  which  are  caused  by  the 
oxyde  of  Iron.  It  is  abundant  in  several  countries,  particularly 
Sicily.  Those  thin  white  veins,  by  which  it  is  intersected,  are 
filled  with  minute  Quartz  crystals.  Jasper  was  much  prized  by 
the  ancients ;  being  considered  by  them  as  a  precious  stone,  pro- 
bably on  account  of  its  hardness :  it  was  one  of  the  twelve  stones 
which  formed  the  breast-plate  of  the  high-priest,  Aaron.  These 
were  arranged  in  the  following  order:  in  the  first  row,  a  Sardius, 
a  Topaz,  and  a  Carbuncle ;  in  the  second  row,  an  Emerald,  a  Sap- 
phire, and  a  Diamond;  in  the  third,  a  Ligure,  an  Agate,  and  an 
Amethyst;  and  in  the  fourth,  a  Beryl,  an  Onyx,  and  a  Jasper. 
The  first  of  these  stones  is,  probably,  the  dark  unburnt  Carnelian, 
called  by  the  jewellers,  Sard ;  the  Ligure  is  not  known  at  the  present 
day;  but  the  name  Ligurite  has  lately  been  applied  to  a  hard  crys- 
tallized mineral,  which  considerably  resembles  the  Chrysolite. 

Common  Flint  appears,  at  first  sight,  to  have  little  affinity  with 
most  of  these  minerals;  yet  it  is  almost  pure  SILICA,  and  its  hard- 
ness equals  that  of  Quartz,  which  is  considerably  greater  than  that 
of  glass;  and,  as  it  does  not  vary  in  different  specimens,  it  becomes 
a  kind  of  standard,  with  which  the  hardness  of  minerals  may  be 
compared,  by  scratching  one  with  the  other.  It  is  not  correct, 
however,  to  conclude,  that  every  mineral  which  scratches  glass 
belongs  to  the  Quartz  family,  for  there  are  a  great  many  of  inter- 
mediate hardness:  Felspar,  for  instance,  will  readily  scratch  glass, 
and  is  easily  scratched  by  Quartz.  Others,  again,  as  all  the 
species  of  Garnets,  are  much  harder  than  Quartz.  That  beautiful 
gem,  the  Garnet,  contains  a  large  portion  of  Iron,  in  the  state  of 
oxyde  or  rust,  which  is  the  cause  of  its  deep  red  colour,  and  high 
specific  gravity;  namely,  about  four.  The  crystals  are  dodeca- 
hedrons (twelve-sided  figures,  of  which  the  faces 
are  rhombic,  or  lozenge-shaped,  a,  fig.  3,  or  else 
a  figure  of  twenty-four  somewhat  irregular  faces 
6,  fig.  3.)  There  are  frequently  narrow  planes  on 
the  first  figure,  which  appear  to  have  replaced  its 
edges  all  around;  the  edges  are  then  said  to  be 
truncated:  a  circumstance  which  frequently  occurs 
to  the  crystals  of  this,  and  of  other  minerals.  It  is 
proper,  perhaps,  to  observe,  that  by  a  crystal,  we 
do  not  mean  Rock  Crystal  only;  but  all  regular  or  symmetrical 
forms,  inclosed  by  plane  surfaces,  which  simple  minerals  are 


66 


MINERALOGY. 


found  to  assume.  The  word  crystal  (Krustallos)  signifies  ice; 
and  was  given  by  the  ancients  to  the  colourless  transparent  Quartz 
found  in  the  snowy  regions  of  the  Alps;  "  which,"  says  the  cre- 
dulous, and,  in  this  as  well  as  many  other  instances,  incorrect 
Pliny,  "is,  indeed,  ice;  but  so  permanently  congealed  by  the 
extreme  cold,  that  it  can  never  again  become  liquid!"  In  time,  the 
constancy  of  the  form  became  remarkable,  and  the  term  was 
applied  to  all  other  regular  solids. 

The  crystals,  both  of  common  and  precious  Garnet,  are  usually 
embedded  in  Granite,  or  some  other  rock;  and  the  Pyrope  Garnet, 
likewise,  which,  as  well  as  the  precious  Garnet,  is  used  in  jewel- 
lery; and,  perhaps,  excels  it  in  depth  and  richness  of  colour. 
The  latter  is  found  in  Bohemia  and  Saxony ;  it  is  supposed  to  be  the 
Carbuncle  of  the  ancients.  Common  Garnet,  a  more  abundant 
variety,  is  of  a  dull  brown  or  green  colour,  nearly  or  quite  opaque, 
and  contains  LIME.  The  Melanite  and  the  Leucite  are  varieties  of 
the  Garnet:  the  former,  which  is  found  at  Frescati,  near  Mount 
Vesuvius,  is  constantly  black ;  and  the  latter,  of  a  grayish  white 
colour,  is  abundant  in  some  of  the  Vesuvian  lava. 

The  Tourmaline   (Fig.  4)  possesses  two  very  singular  charac- 
4  teristics:  one  is  the  power  of  becoming  strongly 

/jvTT^i  electric,   with    polarity,    on    being  heated;    in- 

deed, more  obviously  so  than  any  other  mine- 
ral. If  you  suspect  a  crystal  to  be  a  Tourmaline, 
and  wish  to  try  its  electricity,  hold  it  in  a 
slender  pair  of  pincers,  set  in  a  glass  handle, 
over  the  flame  of  a  wax  candle  or  small  lamp ; 
but  not  so  near  that  it  may  be  blackened  by  the  smoke.  When  it 
is  just  too  hot  to  touch,  on  holding  it  near  a  very  small  piece  of  gold 
paper,  suspended  by  a  silken  thread,  if  it  be  a  Tourmaline,  it  will 
attract  it;  and  the  same  end  will,  presently  after,  repel  it.  The 
other  remarkable  circumstance  is,  that,  although  the  crystals,  which 
are  prismatic,  and  always  streaked  lengthways,  appear  perfectly 
transparent  on  looking  through  them  from  side  to  side:  yet,  if 
you  look  at  the  ends  of  a  crystal,  let  it  be  ever  so  short,  it  will 
be  found  to  be  opaque.  lolite,  another  species  of  the  same  family, 
possesses  a  somewhat  similar  property :  in  one  direction  it  ap- 
pears purplish  blue;  in  another,  it  is  yellowish  brown.  It  occurs 
in  Spain,  Bavaria,  and  Finland.  Tourmalines  are  found  in  North 
America,  Brazil,  and  the  Island  of  Ceylon,  of  a  green  and  dull 
blue  colour,  they  are  brightest  from  the  last-mentioned  place. 
Red  Tourmalines,  also,  have  been  brought  from  Ceylon  and  Siberia; 


MINERALOGY.  67 

they  contain  one-tenth  part  of  Soda,   and  are  called  Rubellites, 
from  their  resemblance  to  the  Ruby. 

Those  whitish  and  reddish  grains,  nearly  opaque,  in  Granite, 
the  common  paving  stone  of  London,  are  Felspar;  the  grayish 
ones,  more  transparent,  are  Quartz ;  and  the  dark  shining  particles 
are  called  Mica.  In  larger  masses  of  Felspar,  which  is  an  abundant 
ingredient  of  many  rocks,  the  laminated  or  crystalline  structure 
is  more  distinct:  you  may  perceive,  that  wherever  it  is  broken, 
the  surface  of  the  fracture  is  shining,  and  almost  perfectly  flat ;  it 
is,  therefore,  said,  that  it  may  be  cleaved,  or  it  possesses  a  cleavage, 
which  is  parallel  to  two  opposite  faces  of  the  primitive  crystal. 
This  crystal  is  an  oblique  prism ;  and  it  may  be  cleaved  or  split  in 
two  other  directions,  parallel  to  the  remaining  faces,  but  not  with 
the  same  ease  (See  Felspar,  fig.  5.)  The 
capability  of  being  cleaved,  is  one  of 
great  importance ;  because  it  enables  us 
to  determine  the  primitive  crystals  of 
such  minerals  as  possess  it;  their  planes 
meeting  at  the  same  angles  as  the  planes 
of  cleavage.  By  the  assistance  of  an 
instrument,  called  a  goniometer,  these 
may  be  measured  very  exactly ;  and  thus  the  species  to  which  the 
mineral  belongs  may  be  ascertained.  It  is  true,  that  when  the 
crystals  are  large,  and  tolerably  perfect,  there  is  no  need  of  resort- 
ing to  this  mode  of  determining  it;  but  they  are  very  often  imper- 
fect, extremely  small,  or  heaped  together  in  great  confusion.  In 
some  minerals,  cleavage  can  be  obtained  only  in  one  direction: 
such  is  the  Topaz;  and  such  is  Mica,  commonly  rallod  Muscovy 
Talc,  and  Muscovy  glass,  from  its  appearance  and  locality.  One 
might,  indeed,  mistake  the  large  transparent  plates  for  glass,  if 
set  in  a  window-frame,  though  they  are  not  always  quite  colour- 
less. Mica  is  used  for  the  windows  of  the  Russian  ships-of-war; 
being  a  very  elastic  substance,  it  is  less  liable  to  be  broken  than  glass. 
Perfect  crystals  of  Mica,  are  small  and  rare; 
they  are  six-sided  prisms  (Fig.  6.) — But 
we  have  examined  only  one  species  of  Fel- 
spar, the  common  or  massive  kind.  Moon- 
stone, or  Adularia,  a  very  white  and  pure 
variety,  exhibits  a  pale  blue  floating  light, 
and  is  used  in  jewellery  j  indeed,  its  delicate  appearance,  so  like 
"  the  silver  moon-light,"  certainly  entitles  it  to  rank  among  the 
precious  stones,  while  the  Cat's-eye  is  admitted  as  one.  It  is  found 
6* 


68  MINERALOGY. 

in  Ceylon  and  in  some  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  The  desert  coast  of 
Labrador  affords  us  another  beautiful  stone,  now  called  the  Labra- 
dorite.  It  can  by  no  means  be  compared  to  Opal  in  brilliancy; 
yet  the  dark  blue,  green,  and  various  shades  of  orange  and  flame 
colour,  which  it  reflects,  in  certain  lights,  render  it  much  more 
pleasing  than  its  dark  gray  colour  would,  at  first  sight,  lead  us  to 
expect.  The  Labradorite  should  be  cut  into  small  slabs,  and  pol- 
ished, to  show  it  to  advantage.  Felspar  and  Mica  both  contain 
potash  or  pearlash. 

The  Lapis-lazuli,  or  Azure-stone,  which  is  brought  from  Persia 
and  Great  Bucharia,  may  always  be  known  by  its  beautiful  and 
constant  blue  colour,  exactly  similar  to  the  ultramarine  blue,  which 
is  prepared  from  it  by  grinding  and  washing.  It  is  used  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  although  its  granular  texture  prevents  it  from 
receiving  a  high  polish. 

The  next  specimen  which  we  shall  notice,  is  one  that  might 
be  mistaken  for  a  piece  of  black  glass,  which  it  certainly  very  much 
resembles  in  its  colour,  lustre,  and  the  conchoidal,  or  shell-like, 
form  of  its  fracture.  It  is  called  Obsidian,  and  occurs  abundantly 
in  countries  where  extinct  volcanos  exist.  In  Mexico,  there  is  a 
mountain  of  Obsidian,  called  by  the  natives,  "  the  mountain  of 
knives,"  which  the  Spaniards,  also,  translate  "  la  sierra  de  las  nava- 
jas,"  because  they  use  the  thin  fragments,  which  are  extremely 
sharp-edged,  instead  of  knives  and  razors.  Pumice  has  little  external 
resemblance  with  Obsidian,  but,  in  composition,  they  are  nearly 
alike;  and  if  Obsidian  be  exposed  gradually  to  a  strong  heat,  it 
will  froth  and  become  spongy,  like 
Pumice.  This  experiment  may  be 
made  on  a  small  scale,  with  a  blow- 
pipe (Fig.  7 ; )  which  is  a  tube  with 
a  very  small  aperture,  used  to 
direct  and  concentrate  the  flame 
of  a  lamp  or  candle,  by  means  of 
the  breath.  In  making  use  of  it, 
the  fragment  should  be  held  in  a 
pair  of  pincers  made  of  Platina,  or  placed  on  a  strip  of  Platina  foil. 
Pitch-stone,  another  of  the  same  family,  is  more  opaque  than 
Obsidian;  most  frequently  dark  green,  and  less  shining.  We  will 
now  leave  these  dull-looking  minerals,  and  turn,  for  a  few  mo- 
ments, to  the  bright  crystallized  Zeolites. 

Prelmite,  which  was  first  discovered  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
is  translucent  and  yellowish,  green;  but  the  greater  part  of  the 


MINERALOGY. 


69 


species  are  colourless.  Natrolite  (Fig.  8,)  so  named,  from  con- 
taining Natron,  or  Soda,  occurs  sometimes  in  opaque  masses,  formed 
of  delicate  fibres,  of  an  orange  or  buff  colour, 
arranged  in  a  radiated  form ;  but  the  crys- 
tals, which  are  square  prisms,  terminated  by 
flat  pyramids,  are  transparent  and  very  bril- 
liant: this  variety  occurs  in  the  extinct  vol- 
canos  of  the  South  of  France.  Mesotype  is 
found  in  cavities  of  the  Basalt  rocks  of  the  Giants'  Causeway,  the 
Isle  of  Staffa,  and  other  places:  the  fibres,  which  are  slender 
crystals,  are  always  radiated  from  a  centre,  and  the  same  cavity  is 
sometimes  partially  filled  by  Calcedony,  or  the  pearly  crystals  of 
Stilbite  (Fig.  9,)  and  Analcine,  which  are 
both  species  of  Zeolite.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Prehnite,  these  minerals,  if  pow- 
dered and  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of 
muriatic  or  nitric  acid,  will,  in  a  short  time, 
acquire  the  consistence  of  a  jelly. — We 
must  not  carry  our  admiration  of  the  crys- 
tals so  far,  as  to  neglect  or  despise  the  Clays 
and  Slates  on  account  of  their  want  of  beauty;  for  many  of  them 
are  eminently  useful.  The  Porcelain  Clay,  of  a  pure  white,  and 
soft  smooth  texture,  is  extensively  used  in  our  potteries;  which 
are  supplied  with  it,  from  the  North  of  Derby  shire,  and  St.  Austle's, 
in  Cornwall.  Bricks  are  made  of  a  coarse  Clay,  much  discoloured 
by  Iron,  and  intermixed  with  Sand,  called  Loam,  which  is  abundant 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  and  many  spots  of  the  south- 
eastern part  of  England,  as  well  as  in  other  countries.  Tripoli  is 
a  very  Silicious  variety,  so  named  from  the  country  whence  it  was 
first  procured:  it  is  easily  reduced  to  a  sandy  powder,  and  is  em- 
ployed in  polishing  Marble,  japanned  ware,  and  other  articles 
Rotten-stone,  which  is  another  production  of  Derbyshire,  of  a 
dark  gray  colour,  and  much  softer,  is  used  for  the  same  purposes. 
One  of  the  most  useful  species  of  this  family  is  Fuller's  Earth:  before 
the  invention  of  soap,  it  was  considered  so  valuable  for  the  cleans- 
ing of  woollen  cloth,  that  its  exportation  from  England  was  for- 
bidden, under  a  severe  penalty.  Like  Loam,  it  is  found  chiefly  in 
the  south-eastern  part  of  this  country.  A  stiff"  Clay,  from  which 
yellow  ochre  is  prepared,  is  dug  in  Oxfordshire. 

Of  the  Slates,  the  kind  which  is  used  for  roofing  houses  is  the 
most  abundant;  indeed,  it  forms  a  great  part  of  the  high  moun- 
tains of  Wales,  the  north  of  England,  and  Scotland,  and  occupies 


70  MINERALOGY. 

large  tracts  in  several  other  countries.  A  harder  species,  of  a. 
light  gray  or  greenish  colour,  is  the  Whet-stone,  or  Turkish  Hone, 
used  for  sharpening  cutlery;  and  the  French  and  Italian  Chalks,  of 
which  crayon  pencils  are  made,  are  Slate,  containing  a  portion  of 
charcoal.  There  is  another  mineral,  called  French  Chalk,  very 
different  from  this,  both  in  its  appearance  and  composition:  we 
allude  to  the  substance  which  is  so  useful  in  removing  spots  of 
grease  from  silk  and  stuff:  in  Mineralogy,  it  is  called  Soap-stone, 
or  Stealite,  and  belongs  to  the  Magnesian  genus,  and  to  the  same 
family  as  Talc.  We  are  not  speaking  of  Mica,  incorrectly  called 
Muscovy  Talc,  but  of  a  much  softer  mineral,  usually  found  in 
Magnesian  or  Calcareous  rocks,  and  which  is  not  elastic.  The  most 
singular  species  of  the  Talc  family,  is  Amianth,  of  which  the  an- 
cients made  the  wicks  of  their  everlasting  lamps,  and  wove  the 
cloth  in  which  their  dead  bodies  were  burned.  Its  long  cottony 
fibres  may  be  easily  spun  with  a  small  intermixture  of  thread ; 
and  when  the  cloth  woven  from  it  becomes  soiled,  burning  it  care- 
fully restores  it  to  its  original  whiteness.  This  mineral  is  abundant 
in  some  rocks  of  Serpentine;  a  mineral  which  resembles  it  in  com- 
position, and  belongs  to  the  same  family:  Magnesia  forms  nearly 
one-half  of  their  weight.  The  Portsoy  and  Anglesea  Marbles, 
improperly  so  called,  and  the  Verde  Antique  of  Corsica,  are  varie- 
ties of  Serpentine ;  which  forms,  also,  a  large  tract  in  Cornwall.  The 
Chrysolite,  a  beautiful  but  soft  gem,  is  arranged  near  these;  its 
name,  very  properly,  signifies  a  stone  of  golden  green  colour.  The 
Chrysoberyl,  of  a  paler  green,  and  the  Sapphire,  which,  in  hard- 
ness, is  inferior  only  to  the  Diamond,  belong  to  the  Ruby  family, 
and  the  Aluminous  genus;  indeed,  they  consist  almost  wholly  of 
the  earth,  ALUMINA.  Perhaps  you  are  not  aware,  that  Sapphires 
are  of  various  colours, — blue,  purple,  yellow,  rose-colour,  white, 
and,  more  rarely,  greenish:  these  varieties  are  usually  known  by 
10  the  name  of  Oriental  Amethyst,  Oriental 

Ruby,  &c.  Their  lustre  is  very  great, 
and  their  specific  gravity  about  four, 
which  is  higher  than  that  of  most  earthy 
minerals.  The  crystals  of  Sapphire  are 
prisms  and  pyramids  of  six  sides  (Fig. 
10 ; )  but  the  cleavages  are  parallel  to 
the  faces  of  the  primitive  rhomb,  which, 
though  rarely  found  in  nature,  may,  without  much  difficulty,  be 
obtained  by  splitting  off  the  alternate  angles  of  the  prism,  above 
and  below.  The  cleavages,  however,  are  much  more  distinct  in 


MINERALOGY.  71 

Corundum,  an  impure  variety  of  Sapphire.  In  some  specimens, 
the  ends  of  the  prism,  when  rounded  and  polished,  exhibit  a 
moveable  six-rayed  star  of  light. 

The  species  called  Spinel,  or  Balass  Ruby,  is  prized  for  its  very 
rich  crimson  tint,  which  is  attributed  to  a  small  quantity  of  the 
oxyde  of  a  metal  called  Chrome,  that  enters  into  its  composition. 
The  form  of  the  Spinel  crystals  is  the  octa- 
hedron (Fig.  11,)  one  of  the  five  regular  or 
platonic  solids;  these  are  found  loose  in 
the  sand  of  Ceylon,  with  crystals  of  Sap- 
phire, Chrysoberyl,  Topaz  and  Zircon. 
From  the  latter  mineral  the  earth  ZIRCONIA  was  named,  being  first 
discovered  as  the  principal  constituent  of  the  little  crystals  of  Zircon 
12  (Fig.  12;)  they  are  so  called  by  the  Cin- 

jn  f\> i        galese:   the  word  signifying,  in  that  lan- 

Ij        guage,  four-cornered.      This  is  the  heaviest 
\~/s  IJj         of  all  earthy  minerals,  but  not  quite  so  hard 

as  Spinel. — It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  the 

metal,  Chrome,  which  tinges  the  Ruby  with  crimson,  is  the  cause  of 
the  beautiful  green  of  the  Emerald.  And,  surely,  the  Emerald  is, 
after  all,  the  most  lovely  of  the  precious  stones!  The  eye,  after 
roving  from  the  Diamond  to  the  Ruby,  the  Sapphire,  the  Amethyst, 
and  the  Topaz,  fatigued  by  excess  of  brilliancy  and  variety  of 
colours,  rests  with  delight  on  its  refreshing  green, — Nature's  fa- 
vourite tint.  Emeralds  are  now  found  only  in  Peru;  but  they  were 
formerly  brought  from  Ethiopia,  and  were  so  much  prized  by  the 
ancients,  that  they  would  not  engrave  on 

Oi-Sji      them  as  on  the  other  precious  stones.      The 
II      primitive,   and  most  usual  crystal  of  the 
(J    IJj      Emerald,  and  also  of  the  Beryl,  or  Aqua- 
marine, is  a  hexagonal   prism  (Fig.    13.) 

These  two  minerals,  and  the  Euclase,  which  is  remarkable  for  its 
brittleness,  contain  the  earthGLUCiNA,  and  forma  distinct  genus. — 
But  in  speaking  of  the  Zircon  and  Emerald, 
we  have  omitted  to  notice  the  Topaz(fig.  14,) 
which  belongs  to  the  Aluminous  genus.  It 
is  a  mineral  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of 
the  world ;  always  crystallized,  more  or  less 
perfectly;  sometimes  in  the  beds  of  rivers, 
and  sometimes  in  the  veins  of  mountains, 

with  Rock  Crystals  and  Aqua-marines.  The  bright  rose  colour  of 
these  crystals  is  not  their  natural  tint,  but  is  produced  by  exposing 


72 


MINERALOGY. 


the  deep  orange-coloured  Topazes  of  Brazil,  to  a  considerable  heat 
for  some  hours,  and  then  allowing  them  to  cool  slowly.  The  Siberian 
is  Topazes  are  generally  colourless  or  greenish: 

small  pale  yellowish  crystals  have  been  found 
in  the  Cornish  Tin  mines. — We  must  notice  one 
other  mineral  before  we  take  leave  of  this  class: 
it  is  called  Grenatite,  and,  also,  from  its  form, 
Cross-stone  (Fig.  15.)  The  cross  is  produced  by 
the  intersection  of  two  crystals,  which  are  six- 
sided  prisms;  sometimes  obliquely,  and  some- 
times at  right  angles.  Cross-stones  are  found  on  Saint  Gothard,  at 
Compostella,  in  Spain,  and  some  other 
places,  most  usually  embedded  in  sil- 
very Talc,  with  crystals  of  a  transpa- 
rent blue  substance,  called  Cyanite 
(Fig.  16,)  pronounced,  and,  by  some 
mineralogists,  written,  Kyanite. 

ACIDIFEROUS   EARTHY  MINERALS. 

LIME,  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  so  many  minerals, 
has  never  been  found  in  a  simple  or  uncombined  state  j  but  its 
combinations  with  the  different  acids,  which  are  nearly  free  from 
any  other  admixture,  are  very  characteristic ;  and  form,  of  them- 
selves, a  distinct  genus,  called  the  Calcareous  genus.  In  Lime- 
stone and  Marble  it  is  united  with  carbonic  acid,  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  fixed  air ;  because,  though  when  pure  and  uncon- 
fined,  it  is  gas  or  air,  it  enters  into  the  composition  of  solid 
substances.  When  Lime-stone,  or  Marble,  is  burnt,  this  acid  ex- 
pands and  evaporates,  and  the  stone  becomes  pure,  or  quick 
LIME.  Like  most  other  minerals,  carbonate  of  LIME,  in  its  purest 
state,  is  crystallized,  colourless,  and  transparent;  and  is  then  called 
Calcspar  (Fig.  17.)  The  lead  mines  of  Der- 
byshire and  Staffordshire,  and  the  Dufton 
mines  in  the  north  of  England,  have  long 
been  celebrated  for  die  beautiful  specimens 
which  they  afford  of  this  mineral:  and  es- 
pecially for  their  rare  crystallizations,  which 
are  often  extremely  complex,  though  small. 
The  primary  and  most  simple  form  of  Calc- 
spar, is  an  obtuse  rhomboid,  which,  however,  seldom  occurs; 
but  the  crystals  derived  from  it  are  very  numerous,  and  many  of 
them  abundant :  they  are  combinations  of  the  planes  of  rhomboids, 


MINERALOGY.  73 

both  acute  and  obtuse,  of  six-sided  prisms,  and  of  dodecahedrons ; 
— not  such  dodecahedrons  as  those  of  Garnet,  but  having  twelve 
triangular  faces,  forming  a  kind  of  double  pyramid.  Very  fine 
groups  of  the  six-sided  prisms  are  brought  from  the  mines  in  the 
18  Hartz  forest,  having  their  termina- 

tions white  and  opaque.  The  figure, 
commonly  called  dog's-tooth  crystal 
(Fig.  18,)  is  a  pyramidal  dodecahe- 
dron ;  the  alternate  edges  being  some- 
times replaced  by  narrow  planes, 
which,  if  extended  uninterruptedly, 
would  form  an  acute  rhomboid :  those 
from  Derbyshire  are  frequently  of  a 
Topaz  colour.  This  mineral  possesses, 
in  a  high  degree,  the  remarkable  property  of  double  refraction : 
place  a  transparent  fragment  on  a  black  line,  or  any  painted  or 
written  word,  and  it  will  appear  as  if  written  or  printed  twice 
(Fig.  19;)  and  by  moving  the  frag- 
ment, the  two  images  will  appear 
to  move  till  they  coincide. — A  some- 
what crystalline  structure  may  be  ob- 
served in  Marble ;  some  kinds  of  which 
abound  in  petrifactions  of  shells,  and 
other  organic  bodies.  Chalk  is  car- 
bonate of  LIME  in  an  earthy  form;  and, 
if  burnt,  would  afford  LIME  equally 
with  Lime-stone  or  Marble.  Another  property  which  characterizes 
the  minerals  of  this  family,  and  is  peculiar,  more  or  Jess,  to  all 
carbonates,  is  that  of  effervescing  when  dissolved  in  any  strong 
acid.  In  order  to  observe  this,  you  need  only  touch  the  specimen 
with  a  small  drop  of  nitric  or  muriatic  acid,  and  the  effect  will  be 
easily  perceived. 

In  this  investigation  of  Calcareous  minerals,  we  cannot  omit  to 
bestow  a  few  observations  on  the  celebrated  petrifying  springs  of 
Matlock,  and  deprive  them  of  the  renown  they  have  acquired  by 
the  magical  power  ascribed  to  them.  The  water,  flowing  through 
Lime-stone  rocks,  is  impregnated  with  Calcareous  matter,  inter- 
mixed with  CLAY,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  is  deposited  from 
it;  hence  it  forms  an  incrustation  on  stones,  twigs,  moss,  shells, 
or  any  other  object,  over  which  the  springs  trickle:  this  is  called 
Calctuff,  or  Tufa. 

A  species  of  carbonate  of  LIME,  containing  a  very  small  portion 


74 


MINERALOGY. 


of  the  carbonate  of  STRONTIA, — a  mineral  which  we  shall,  by-and- 
by,  notice, — is  called  Arragonite,  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
having  been  first  observed  in  Arragon.  The  prettiest  variety  is  one 
which  has  the  appearance  of  white  Coralline,  with  the  ends  of  the 
branches  sometimes  shooting  out  little 
tufts  of  crystals:  it  is  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  Flos  Ferri  (Fig.  20.) — 
The  combination  of  LIME  with  phos- 
phoric acid,  is  called  phosphate  of  LIME  ; 
and  also  Apatite.  Its  crystals  resem- 
bling, in  form,  those  of  the  Beryl,  might 
almost  be  mistaken  for  that  substance, 
but  that,  like  all  the  minerals  of  this 
genus,  it  is  soft  enough  to  be  scratched  with  a  knife.  It  may, 
also,  be  distinguished  by  placing  it  on  some  hot  coals,  in  a  dark 
place,  where  it  will  shine  with  a  beautiful  phosphorescent  light. 
Some  of  the  Fluors,  or  Fluates  of  LIME,  possess  this  property;  par- 
ticularly a  variety  called  Chlorophane,  usually  met  with  in  Siberia, 
which,  when  gradually  heated,  emits 
a  brilliant  green  light.  Apatite  is 
considerably  harder  than  Calcspar; 
and  Fluor,  which  is  LIME  combined 
with  fluoric  acid,  is  intermediate 
between  them.  Its  crystallizations 
(Fig.  21)  are,  most  frequently,  the 
cube,  and  other  solids,  which  appear 
to  be  derived  from  it;  but  its  pri- 
mary form  is  the  octahedron,  which 
may  be  easily  obtained  from  it  by 
cleavage.  The  transparent,  purple, 
and  green  Fluor  of  Yorkshire  and  Cumberland,  is  abundant  in  the 
Lead  mines,  and  is  beautifully  contrasted  with  colourless  crystals  of 
Quartz  and  Calcspar,  and  sometimes  accompanied  by  Lead  ore  and 
22  Pyrites,  which  is  an  ore  of  Iron  of 

a  brass  yellow  colour; — you  have 
often  seen  it  intermixed  with  Coal, 
and  have  been  told,  perhaps,  that 
it  is  Gold. — The  fibrous,  or  radi- 
ated Fluor  of  Derbyshire,  generally 
called  Spar,  acquires  its  rich  purple 
tints  by  exposure  to  heat.  Sul- 
phate of  LIME,  or  Gypsum  (Fig.  22,)  which  is  the  combination  of 


MINERALOGY. 


75 


LIME  with  sulphuric  acid,  is  very  soft;  its  crystals  are  often  pearly 
and  transparent;  but  it  is  more  frequently  granular,  shining,  and 
sometimes  of  a  reddish  colour.  When  burnt,  it  becomes  plaster 
of  Paris. 

The  delicate  white  and  minute  crystals  seen  on  some  dark 
brown  Slates,  are  natural  Alum;  but  the  quantity  of  sulphate  of 
Iron  which  they  contain,  gives  them  an  inky  taste,  very  unlike  that 
of  manufactured  Alum.  Phosphoric  acid,  combined  with  ALUMINA 
and  a  large  proportion  of  water,  furnishes  us  with  a  very  pretty 
mineral,  named  Wavellite  (Fig. 23,)  from 
Dr.  Wavell,  who  discovered  it  in  Devon- 
shire: it  forms  small  globular  masses, 
having  a  somewhat  crinkled  surface, 
which  are  usually  attached  to  a  kind 
of  Slate.  When  these  little  globes  are 
broken,  they  exhibit  a  very  perfect  radiated  structure. 

Heavy  Spar,  so  named  from  its  specific  gravity,  which  is  above 
four,  is  the  sulphate  of  the  earth,  Barytes  (Fig.  24.)  The  crystals 
are  generally  very  well  formed,  and  either 
colourless,  dark  brown,  or  yellow.  Of  the 
earth,  STRONTIA,  we  have  the  carbonate, 
which  is  greenish  and  somewhat  radiated; 
and  the  sulphate  in  bright  colourless  or  bluish 
crystals,  which,  both  in  form  and  weight, 
strongly  resemble  those  of  sulphate  of  Ba- 
rytes. It  was  named  STRONTIA,  from  Stron- 
tian,  a  village  in  the  county  of  Argyle. 


ALKALINE  SALTS. 

The  Alkaline  Salts  form  a  very  inconsiderable  class,  compared 
with  the  two  we  have  just  examined.  A  few  of  the  species  are, 
however,  abundant; — Nitre,  for  instance,  which  received  its  name 
from  the  desert  of  Nitria,  or  Nitron,  in  Egypt,  where  it  covers  the 
surface  of  an  extensive  tract  of  land ;  and  Rock  Salt  (the  muriate  of 
Soda,)  which  is  very  plentiful  in  England,  and  some  other  countries. 
Almost  every  one  has  read  an  account  of  the  extensive  Salt  mines 
of  Poland,  which  are  about  six  hundred  feet  deep,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  chapels,  altars,  &c.  which  are  carved  in  the  Salt  rock; 
but  their  brilliancy  has,  probably,  been  very  much  exaggerated. 
Borax  is  brought,  in  natural  crystals,  from  Thibet  and  Persia. 
7 


76 


MINERALOGY. 


Sal-ammoniac,  which  is  muriate  of  Ammonia,  is  a  volcanic  mi- 
neral, sometimes  found  in  lava. 


METALS. 

Of  these,  Gold  first  claims  our  attention.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
mistake  any  other  ore  for  this  beautiful  Metal,  so  much  does  its 
colour  exceed  that  of  all  others  in  richness.  When  Metals  are 
found  pure,  they  are  called  native  Metals;  both  Gold  and  Silver 
occur  in  this  state,  forming  branches  and  leaf-like  aggregations, 
on  Quartz  ;  and,  more  rarely,  with 
Gypsum  (Fig.  25.)  Native  Silver,  also, 
&  jjs)  w^  frequently  resembles  bent  and  twisted 


wires.  The  most  ancient  Gold  mines 
are,  perhaps,  those  of  Golconda;  but, 
at  present,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  Gold  that  is  used  in  Europe,  is  brought  from  the  rivers  of  South 
America.  There  are  Gold  mines,  likewise,  in  Siberia.  The  richest 
and  most  numerous  Silver  mines  are  those  of  Mexico.  The  great 
weight  of  Gold  is  well  known  ;  but  every  one  is  not  aware  that 
there  is  a  metal  much  heavier,  called  Platina:  it  is  found  in  South 
America,  in  the  shape  of  small  grains,  of 
nearly  a  steel  colour;  and,  for  some  years 
past,  has  been  much  used  in  the  potteries, 
to  cover  earthenware,  or  porcelain,  in  the 
manner  of  gilding.  Copper  is  also  found 
native,  in  dendritic,  or  moss-like  forms, 
and  variously  combined  with  Sulphur, 
oxygen,  and  some  acids  (Fig.  26.)  With 
Sulphur  and  Iron  it  forms  Copper  pyrites, 
the  most  abundant  of  its  ores,  which 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  Iron  pyrites  by  its  inferior  hard- 
ness, and  its  different  crystallizations  (Fig.  27.)  Its  brassy  colour 
27  is  often  concealed  by  an  external  tarnish, 

exhibiting  the  tints  of  the  rainbow;  but 
this  brilliant  iridescence  is  most  frequent 
on  the  variegated  Copper  ore,  which  is  still 
softer,  and  of  a  deeper  yellow,  —  one-half 
of  its  weight  being  Sulphur.  This  com- 
bination of  a  Metal  with  Sulphur,  is  called 
a  sulphuret.  The  sulphuret  of  Silver,  which  contains  Antimony,  is 


MINERALOGY. 


77 


of  a  colour  so  intensely  red,  that,  at  first  sight,  the  crystals,  which 
resemble  those  of  Calcspar,  appear  black. 

Is  it  not  singular,  that  the  ores  should  sometimes  be  so  totally 
unlike  the  Metals'?  Many  earthy  minerals  we  see  frequently 
almost  in  their  natural  state ;  but  few  persons  are  acquainted  with 
the  ores  of  the  Metals  most  commonly  in  use,  or  reflect  on  the 
many  processes  which  are  necessary  to  produce  from  them,  such 
23  articles  as  we  call,  from  habit,  the  most 

simple  conveniences.  What  can  be  less 
like  Copper  than  those  beautiful  green 
specimens,  exhibiting  concentric  shells  of 
a  delicate  radiate  structure  (Fig.  28)  1 — 
or  that  fine  light  blue  one,  surpassing  the 
richest  velvet,  in  its  soft  and  silky  appear- 
ance 1  The  latter  is  hydrate  of  Copper ; — 
that  is,  Copper  combined  with  water ;  the  green  ones,  less  rare, 
are  carbonate,  and  called  Malachite.  There  is  also  a  carbonate  of 
Copper  of  a  deep  purple  colour,  which  is  usually 
crystallized,  though  not  always  very  distinctly 
(Fig.  29.)  These  species  are  scarcely  known 
in  the  English  Copper-mines;  which,  however, 
afford  fine  specimens  of  the  native  Copper, 
Copper  pyrites,  the  pure  gray  sulphuret  in  hex- 
agonal crystals,  and  the  different  varieties  of  ar- 
seniate  of  Copper.  The  arseniates  of  Copper  are 
of  a  blackish  green  colour,  with  the  exception  of  the  lenticular  spe- 
cies, which  occurs  in  greenish  blue  crystals  of  a  flat  octahedral  form, 
heaped  together  in  confused  groupes  (Fig. 
30.)  The  word  arseniate  may  require 
some  explanation  : — Arsenic,  which  is  itself 
a  Metal,  as  well  as  Chrome,  and  a  few 
others,  when  oxydized  (or  burnt,)  becomes 
an  acid;  and  in  this  state  unites  with  other 
Metals,  Earths  and  Alkalis, — forming  ar- 
seniates; Chrome  forms  chromates,  &c. 
The  Cornish  mines  have  been  celebrated  for  many  centuries.  It 
is  supposed,  that  the  Phoenicians,  who  were  famed  for  their  skill 
as  armourers  and  braziers,  procured  Tin  ore  from  Great  Britain. 
At  that  period,  Brass  (Copper  and  Zinc)  was  much  less  used  than 
at  present,  and  the  principal  mixed  Metal  was  an  alloy  of  Copper 
and  Tin :  a  natural  combination  of  those  two  Metals  has  been  found 
in  Cornwall  in  very  small  quantity;  but  the  oxyde  of  Tin  is 


78  MINERALOGY. 

abundant,  of  a  blackish  brown  colour,  and  usually  crystallized 
It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  though  Tin  is  the  lightest  of  the  Metals, 
its  ore  is  considerably  heavier  than  that  of  Copper  or  Iron.  The  ores 
of  the  latter  are  numerous,  but  few  of  them  possess  any  beauty.  Na- 
tive Iron  is  so  unlike  every  other  native  Metal  and  ore,  both  in  its 
appearance  and  situation,  that  it  is  supposed  to  be  a  meteoric 
Stone.  There  is  a  mass  of  it  on  an  elevated  spot  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  of  which  the  surface  is  cellular,  and  much  corroded 
by  the  atmosphere;  and  other  masses  have  been  found  in  Siberia, 
the  desert  of  Sahra,  and  North  and  South  America.  There  is 
another  reason  in  favour  of  the  supposition  that  these  masses  of 
Iron  are  not  terrestrial  productions ; — they  all  contain,  in  a  hundred 
parts,  from  one  to  four  parts  of  Nickel, — a  rare  metal,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  capability  of  becoming  magnetic.  Nickel  has 
been  found,  likewise,  in  a  small  quantity,  in  all  other  meteoric 
stones,  of  which  many  have  been  seen  to  fall  through  the  atmo- 
sphere. A  large  one,  many  years  ago,  fell  in  Yorkshire,  and 
was  observed  by  a  labourer,  near  the  spot,  who  procured  assistance, 
and  dug  it  out  of  the  earth,  into  which  it  had  penetrated  some 
feet.  Since  this,  a  shower  of  stones  fell  in  the  south  of  France; 
31  an  account  of  which  may  be  in  the  recollection  of 

some  of  our  readers. — Iron  pyrites  (Fig.  31)  is  not 
worked  as  an  Iron  ore,  but  for  the  Sulphur  it  con- 
tains. Its  crystallizations  are  the  cube,  octahedron, 
pentagonal  dodecahedron,  and  various  combina- 
tions and  modifications  of  these:  it  is  so  hard  as  to 
give  sparks  when  struck  against  Steel,  and  will 
receive  a  good  polish.  In  Peru  it  is  called  Piedra 
de  los  Incas,  and  the  early  inhabitants  of  the 
country  made  mirrors  of  it. — Natural  magnetic  Iron  is  an  oxyde, 
and  occurs  very  abundantly  in  Sweden  and  Saxony,  both  granular 
and  compact.  The  Iron  Glance,  another  variety  of  the  black  oxyde, 
which  is  sometimes  magnetic,  is  the  most  brilliant  of  its  ores;  the 
32  ^^  lustre  of  the  crystals  is,  indeed,  splendent,  and 
they  often  exhibit  a  blue  or  green  tarnish.  An- 
other oxyde  is  the  red  ore,  so  common  in  Lan- 
cashire: the  radiated  variety,  of  a  blackish  red, 
is  called  Haematite;  and  when  earthy,  it  is 
called  Ruddle,  or  Red  Chalk.  The  phosphate 
of  Iron,  or  Iron  mineralized  by  the  phosphoric 
acid,  forms  transparent  crystals  (Fig.  32,)  which  are  of  an  indigo 
colour  and  prismatic :  the  arseniate  is  always  crystallized  in  cubes, 


MINERALOGY.  79 

which  become  electric  when  heated  (Fig.  33.)  All  the  minerals 
which  are  known  to  have  this  property,  are  characterized  by  a 
peculiarity  in  their  crystallization, — their  opposite 
terminations  are  different.  This  is  the  case  with 
the  Tourmaline,  with  some  few  Topazes,  and  with 
Analcime :  but  that  such  a  circumstance  should  be 
apparent  in  the  cube,  which  is  a  perfectly  sym- 
metrical figure,  is,  perhaps,  still  more  remarkable. 
The  alternate  angles  are  modified  by  the  addition,  sometimes  of 
one,  and  sometimes  of  four  planes. 

Carbonate  of  Iron  greatly  resembles  carbonate  of  LIME,  but  is 
harder  and  heavier,  and  has  but  little  variety  in  its  crystallization. 
There  is  a  further  distinction ;  namely, — that  by  exposure  to  the 
action  of  the  blow-pipe,  carbonate  of  Iron  becomes  black,  and 
carbonate  of  LIME,  white  and  powdery.  This  little  instrument  is 
of  the  greatest  utility  in  distinguishing  the  metallic  ores.  Many 
of  them  communicate  a  particular  tint  to  the  substance  with  which 
they  are  melted,  called  a  flux:  this  may  be  powdered  glass,  borax, 
or  soda,  according  to  circumstances.  Copper  ores  readily  commu- 
nicate a  bright  green  colour ;  the  ores  of  Manganese,  a  lilac  tinge, 
which  may  often  be  observed  in  window-glass; — when  deeper,  it 
becomes  a  rich  violet.  Cobalt,  from  which  smalt  and  other  fine 
blues  are  prepared,  imparts  this  colour  to  the  flux ;  which,  in  re- 
ducing these  ores,  may  be  either  of  the  above-named  substances. 
In  making  such  experiments,  care  must  be  taken  to  use  a  very  mi- 
nute portion  of  the  ore  compared  with  the  quantity  of  flux:  a  crumb, 
the  size  of  a  small  pin's  head,  being,  in  general,  sufficient;  and 
also,  not  to  expose  the  ore  and  flux,  suddenly,  to  the  hottest  part  of 
the  flame. 

Antimony,  a  Metal  which  is  applied  to  many  useful  purposes, 
both  in  manufactures  and  medicine,  is  found  in    combination  with 
Sulphur ;  and  also,  occasionally,  with  oxy- 
gen only.     The   sulphuret  crystallizes  in 
thin  prisms,  terminated   usually  by  four 
small     faces,   forming    rather   a    pointed 
summit  (Fig.   34:)  they  appear  perfectly 
metallic.      This  mineral  is  abundant    in 
France  and  Germany,  but  not  in  Great 
Britain.     The  ores  of  Cobalt  are  alloys 
of  this  Metal  with  Arsenic,  which  consti- 
tutes about  half  the  weight  of  the  gray  ore  and  the  Cobalt  Glance, 
or  bright-white  Cobalt  ore:   these,  like  the  native  Metals,  have  a 
7* 


80 


MINERALOGY. 


perfectly  metallic  lustre;  and  the  crystals  of  the  latter  exactly 
resemble  those  of  Iron  pyrites,  but  are  generally  smaller.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Cobalt  which  is  used  in  manufactures,  is  brought 
from  Norway  and  Sweden. 

A  very  simple  method  of  detecting  the  presence  of  Arsenic  in 
any  mineral,  is  to  throw  a  small  quantity,  powdered,  on  hot  coals, 
or  a  heated  shovel :  the  Arsenic  will,  almost  immediately,  evaporate 
in  fumes,  which  are  similar,  in  smell,  to  those  of  garlic.  Arsenic 
is  found,  also,  in  a  native  state,  of  a  fine  granular  texture;  prin- 
cipally in  Norway,  the  Hartz,  and  Bohemia. 

Those  beautiful,  yellowish-green,  transparent  crystals,  which  we 
find  dispersed  over  the  Adularia  and  Quartz,  are  called  Sphene, 
an  ore  of  the  Metal,  Titanium.  They  bear  considerable  resemblance 
35  to  the  Chrysoberyl,  but  are  not  so  hard: 

the  finest  are  brought  from  St.  Gothard 
(Fig.  35.) — It  is  disputed,  whether  native 
Lead  has  ever  been  observed:  the  sul- 
phuret,  which  is  abundant  in  Saxony, 
Sweden,  and  some  other  parts  of  Europe, 
but  most  particularly  so  in  Great  Britain, 
has  a  perfectly  metallic  appearance,  and  crystallizes  in  cubes, 
octahedrons,  and  other  secondary  forms ;  but  it  is  more  frequently 
33  massive,  with  very  distinct  and  bright 

cleavages,    parallel  to  the    faces    of    the 
cube, — its  primitive  form  (Fig.  36.)      It 
is  frequently  called  Galena:  a  variety  of 
this,   Slickensides,  causes  some  alarm  to 
the  miners  Avhen  they  discover  it,  on  ac- 
count of  its  liability  to   explode  if  it   be 
scratched.      There  are  brilliant  colourless  crystals  on  some  of  these 
specimens,  which  so  much  resemble  the  Diamond  in  the  intensity  of 
57  their  lustre,  that,  were  they  not  so  soft, 

they  would  supersede  every  other  imita- 
tion of  that  valuable  gem:  they  are  car- 
bonate of  Lead,  from  the  Lead  hills  in 
Scotland, — so  named  from  the  mines  they 
contain.  Thechromate  of  Lead  (Fig.  37,) 
which  is  peculiar  to  a  Gold-mine  of  Si- 
beria, is  crystallized,  and  its  orange-red  colour  is  rather  remarkable : 
when  bruised,  the  powder  is  of  a  deep  rich  yellow;  in  fact,  it  is 
the  same  composition  as  the  artificial  Chrome  yellow. 

The    phosphate   of  Lead  is   green,   and  often  has  a  velvety 


MINERALOGY.  81 

appearance,  similar  to  that  of  the  radiated  carbonate  of  Copper; 
but  you  will  not  be  liable  to  mistake  them,  if  you  bear  in  mind, 
that  the  colour  of  the  Lead  ore  is  so  much  more  yellow  than  that 
of  the  Copper.  You  would  probably  imagine  the  yellow  part  of 
this  specimen  to  be  a  fragment  of  Mica:  it  is  the  sulphuret  of 
Arsenic,  called  Orpiment.  Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful  than 
die  mixture  of  this  golden  Micaceous  substance  with  the  red 
variety,  which  is  granular,  or  crystallized.  Arsenic  is  most  com- 
monly known  in  the  form  of  white  powder,  which  is  an  oxyde 
artificially  prepared.  By  the  application  of  heat,  the  Sulphur 
burns  away  with  a  blue  flame,  and  the  Arsenic  is  volatilized. 

INFLAMMABLE  MINERALS. 

Sulphur  is,  of  course,  arranged  in  the  Inflammable  class:  it  is 
of  two  kinds,  native  and  volcanic;  they  are  both,  usually,  semi- 
transparent,  and  may  be  distinguished  by  the  difference  of  their 
colour :  native  Sulphur  is  of  a  full  bright  yellow, 
and  sometimes  crystallized ;  the  volcanic  kind 
is  deep  orange,  and  often  prettily  contrasted 
with  groupes  of  white  crystals,  which  are  sul- 
phate of  STRONTIA  (Fig.  38.)  The  principal 
part  of  the  Sulphur  which  is  consumed  in  the 
European  manufactures,  is  obtained  from  a 
remarkable  natural  deposit  at  Solfatara,  near 
Naples ;  but  the  most  beautiful  crystallized  specimens  are  found  in 
Spain. — At  the  beginning  of  the  Carbonaceous  genus,  is  placed  the 
Diamond;  certainly  not  from  its  external  resemblance  to  the  Coal 
family,  but  because  it  is  known  to  be  Carbon  in  its  purest  state. 
In  hardness,  the  Diamond  exceeds  all  known  substances;  and  on 
this  account,  probably,  it  was  so  highly  valued  by  the  ancients; 
although  they  were  unacquainted  with  the  manner  of  cutting  and 
polishing  it.  There  is,  in  the  British  3Iuseum,  an  antique  Diamond 
ring,  probably  of  Roman  workmanship;  the  setting  is  of  pure 
Gold,  and  the  Diamond  a  natural  octahedral  crystal,  rather  elon- 
gated. It  is  not,  however,  brilliant ;  although  some  crystals  exhibit 
surfaces  as  resplendently  bright  as  the  faces  of  cut  ones.  Even  in 
the  eighth  century,  the  art  of  cutting  Diamonds,  which  was 
practised  in  the  East  at  a  very  early  period,  appears  to  have  been 
unknown  in  Europe;  for  the  clasp,  which  ornamented  the  imperial 
mantle  of  Charlemagne,  and  is  still  preserved  in  Paris,  contains 
four  rough  Diamonds. 


82  MINERALOGY. 

The  crystals  of  the  Diamond  are  somewhat  peculiar:  they 
are  always  unattached,  and  the  surfaces  have  most  frequently  a 
tendency  to  convexity.  The  dodecahedron,  of  which  the  faces 
are  divided  into  four  triangles,  slightly  convex,  and  the  octahedron 
having  edges  replaced  by  narrow  convex  planes,  are  forms  very 
frequently  met  with;  particularly  among  the  Bra- 
zilian Diamonds  (Fig.  39.)  They  are  occasionally 
found  quite  spherical,  with  a  slightly  crinkled  sur- 
face :  this  form  appears  to  be  the  result  of  a  confused 
or  imperfect  crystallization;  for  the  round  Diamonds 
are  not  cleavable,  while  the  crystalline  ones  may 
readily  be  split  in  four  directions,  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  octa- 
hedron,— their  primitive  form :  for  this  reason  the  Diamond-cutters 
consider  the  round  ones  to  be  harder  than  the  others,  and  call 
them  Iron  Diamonds. 

India,  the  first  known  repository  of  this  precious  gem,  has 
produced  all  the  finest  Diamonds  at  present  known  in  Europe, 
which  are  remarkable  for  their  size.  The  very  superb  one  in  the 
sceptre  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  which  is  said  to  be  perfectly 
clear,  and  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  was  once  the  eye  of  a  Brah- 
minical  idol,  from  which  it  was  stolen  by  a  French  soldier.  After 
passing  through  other  hands,  it  was  purchased  by  the  Empress 
Catharine,  for  the  enormous  sum  of  ninety  thousand  pounds, 
ready  money,  an  annuity  of  about  four  thousand  pounds,  and  a 
title  of  nobility!  Its  weight  is  said  to  be  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
five  carats.  It  may  be  proper  here  to  observe,  that  the  weight  of 
Diamonds  is  generally  estimated  by  the  carat,  which  is  equal  to 
three  grains  and  two-fifths,  troy.  The  Diamond-merchants,  how- 
ever, call  the  quarter  of  a  carat,  one  grain  diamond  weight. 

The  Pitt,  or  Regent  Diamond,  now  among  the  crown  jewels  of 
France,  was  purchased,  in  a  rough  state,  by  Mr.  Pitt,  the  Go- 
vernor of  Bencooleri:  it  then  weighed  four  hundred  and  ten 
carats;  after  cutting,  it  weighed  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  carats 
and  a  quarter;  and  was  sold  for  one  hundred  and  thirty-five 
thousand  pounds.  Three  thousand  pounds  are  said  to  have  been 
expended  in  cutting  and  polishing  it;  a  process  which  occupied 
above  two  years:  it  is  perfectly  colourless;  and,  from  its  size, 
proportions,  and  purity,  is  considered  the  finest  Diamond  in 
Europe.  According  to  the  usual  rules  for  estimating  the  price  of 
Diamonds,  it  was,  in  1791,  valued  by  a  committee  of  jewellers,  at 
upwards  of  four  hundred  thousand  pounds. 

The  large  yellow  Diamond,  in  the  possession  of  the  Emperor 


MINERALOGY.  83 

of  Austria,  deserves  notice,  as  being  the  largest  of  that  colour  at 
present  known:  its  weight  is  above  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine 
carats.  Its  surface  is  very  large,  being  cut,  in  what  is  termed,  the 
rose  fashion. 

Governor  Hastings  brought  from  India  a  magnificent  Diamond, 
of  the  weight  of  one  hundred  and  one  carats,  which  made  a  superb 
brilliant.  It  was  presented  to  her  late  Majesty,  Queen  Charlotte. 

It  is  not  known  to  every  one,  that  Diamonds  are  found  in 
the  island  of  Borneo;  they  are  not,  however,  so  much  valued  as 
the  Brazilian  stones,  being  generally  of  a  dark  colour. 

Many  authors  have  asserted,  that  the  Diamond  has  the  singular 
property  of  shining  in  the  dark ;  and  we  dare  say  one  authority, 
at  least,  will  occur  to  our  readers:  we  allude  to  the  story  of  Saad 
and  Saadi,  in  the  "  Arabian  Nights."  Notwithstanding  which,  the 
fact  is,  we  believe,  still  disputed ;  or,  at  least,  the  property  is 
believed  to  exist  only  in  particular  specimens.  Diamonds  are 
found  in  the  beds  of  certain  streams  of  Golconda  and  Brazil,  in 
detached  crystals,  or  grains,  intermixed  with  Sand  and  Quartz 
Pebbles;  but  very  rarely  indeed  imbedded  in  any  rock.  There 
is  but  one  species  of  Diamond :  it  stands  alone  in  hardness  and 
in  brilliancy ;  in  value,  it  has  been  always  allowed  a  superiority 
over  every  other  stone. 

Coal  is  a  combination  of  Carbon,  earthy  matter,  and  Bitumen, 
which  is  a  black  substance,  generally  oozing,  in  a  liquid  state, 
from  beds  of  Coal:  but  sometimes  so  much  indurated  as  to  be 
solid,  and  either  brittle,  or  soft  and  elastic.  Naphtha,  which  may 
be  distilled  from  it,  also  occurs  naturally,  flowing  through  sandy 
soils,  or  floating  on  streams  of  water. 

Black  Lead,  more  properly  called  Plumbago,  is  nearly  pure 
Carbon,  and,  therefore  placed  in  this  class,  though  its  lustre  is 
almost  Metallic. 

A  kind  of  Coal,  containing  very  little  Bitumen,  and  looking 
much  like  cinder,  is  called  Mineral  Charcoal. 

Before  we  conclude,  a  few  hints,  as  to  forming  a  collection  of 
minerals,  will,  we  doubt  not,  prove  acceptable.  The  young  natu- 
ralist is  recommended  to  begin  with  a  moderate-sized  cabinet, 
such  as  will  contain  eight  or  ten  drawers,  about  two  inches  in  depth, 
and  one  still  deeper,  at  the  bottom,  for  large  specimens.  If  it  be 
thought  desirable  to  purchase  ;i  small  arranged  collection,  the 
cabinet  should  be  considerably  larger  than  sufficient  to  contain  it, 
in  order  to  leave  room  for  additions.  The  minerals  should  be 
placed  in  card  trays,  about  half,  or  three  quarters,  of  an  inch  deep ; 


84 


MINERALOGY. 


and  empty  trays,  with  the  names  of  such  substances  as  the  collec- 
tion does  not  contain,  should  supply  their  places  until  procured. 
Minerals  are  sometimes  laid  on  jeweller's  cotton;  but  it  is  not  a 
good  plan,  because  the  cotton  is  apt  to  become  entangled  in  the 
crystals,  or  other  minute  parts  of  the  specimens.  If  they  are  so 
tender  as  to  require  some  soft  substance  in  the  trays,  the  cotton 
should  be  covered  with  tissue-paper.  They  may  thus  be  conve- 
niently examined,  without  being  actually  handled,  which  is  very 
injurious  to  many  minerals,  and  particularly  to  the  fractured 
surfaces,  which  are  often  characteristic  of  the  substance.  It  is 
true,  that  there  are  many  minerals  which  may  be  washed  with  im- 
punity, and  even  brushed  with  soap  and  warm  water  (taking  care 
to  rinse  them  well  afterwards,)  —  such  as  most  of  the  Quartz  family, 
the  Fluor  Spar,  Heavy  Spar,  and  many  others;  but  there  are 
others,  such  as  the  Micas,  Salts,  and  many  of  the  more  delicate 
ores,  which  would  be  destroyed  by  such  a  proceeding.  Several, 
however,  would  bear  dusting  with  a  very  soft  brush.  Specimens 
of  Sulphur  are  better  preserved  by  baking  them  for  a  few  hours  in 
a  moderately-heated  oven,  than  by  any  other  method. 


CONCHOLOGY. 


i 


A  brook,  with  banks  of  shells,  flowed  through  the  grot; 
And  oft  the  deer,  amid  the  noontide  heat, 
Trooping,  to  lave  their  lips  in  that  cool  stream, 
Were  startled  by  the  student  and  her  lamp. 

g^  ROUD  as  the  botanist  may  be  of  the  Lily, 
and  the  mineralogist  of  the  Diamond, — the 
Pearl,  "  that  jewel  of  the  sea," — although 
it  does  not  possess  the  delicious  odour  of  the 
flower,  nor  the  splendid  brilliance  of  the  gem, 
—has  beauties  peculiar  to  itself;  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  many,  entitle  it  to  an  equal 
rank  with  either  of  them.  Pearls  are  familiar  to  the  eyes  of  most 
of  our  readers ;  all  of  whom  have  seen,  and  many  of  whom  have 
worn  them  as  ornaments.  Some  of  their  work-boxes  are  inlaid 
with  Mother-o'-Pearl,  or  their  silk-winders  made  of  the  same 
material.  The  Pearl  is,  doubtless,  a  favourite  with  our  young 
friends,  and  we  imagine  that  we  shall  be  more  likely  to  attract 
their  notice,  and  secure  their  attention,  at  the  outset  of  our  article 
on  Conchology,  by  adverting  to  an  object  familiar  as  it  is  beau- 
tiful, than  if  we  began  by  describing  the  various  shells  with  which 
the  uncivilized  female  of  "  some  far-distant  island  "  decorates 
herself,  at  her  rude  toilet  in  a  wicker  canoe, — the  Cowries,  circu- 
lated by  the  Africans  as  cash, — or  even  the  Scallop,  worn  by  the 
pilgrims  of  olden  times.  Pearls  are  of  considerable  importance 
in  a  commercial  point  of  view;  and,  we  need  scarcely  mention, 


86  COXCHOLOGY. 

exceedingly  valuable  when  fine.  A  great  number  of  persons  are 
employed  about  the  coasts  of  Ceylon  and  China,  in  obtaining  the 
shells  which  produce  them.  They  are  formed  from  a  deposition 
of  the  substance  destined  to  line  the  shell,  upon  sand,  fragments 
of  shell,  or  other  matter  that  has  been,  either  accidentally,  or  pur- 
posely, introduced  within  the  mantle  of  the  animal,  or  through  a 
hole  in  the  valve.  The  best  Oriental  Pearls  are  found  in  Avicula 
Margaritifera.  The  shell  itself  is  the  Mother-o'-Pearl  used  for 
inlaying,  &c. 

Those  fine  ornaments,  the  Cameos,  are  frequently  formed  of 
shells  of  different  colours.  Knife-handles,  and  a  number  of  ele- 
gant ornaments,  are  made  of  the  Tridacha  Gigas.  That  celebrated 
ancient  dye,  the  Tynan  purple,  was  obtained  from  a  kind  of 
Whelk  (Purpura  Lapillus;)  and,  without  multiplying  instances, 
suffice  it  that  we  acquaint,  or  remind,  our  readers,  that  shells  have, 
for  ages  past,  supplied  mankind  with  numerous  ornaments,  and 
many  useful  articles. 

One  very  general  employment  of  shells  is  gone  out  of  fashion ; 
but  we  should  like  to  see  it  revived  among  our  juvenile  friends: 
we  allude  to  the  imitation  of  flowers  with  shells.  The  stems  may 
be  made  of  twigs,  or  of  wire  covered  with  silk.  The  shells  should 
be  selected  with  taste,  pressed  into  wax  forms,  or  fastened  on  with 
gum  arabic  mixed  with  white  starch  powder,  so  as  to  resemble  a 
natural  flower.  Shells  suited  to  the  purpose,  are  commonly  imported 
from  the  West-Indian  islands.  Another,  and  more  important  use  of 
shells,  is  the  embellishment  of  grottos.  In  the  adoption  of  shells 
for  this  purpose,  either  on  a  large  or  small  scale,  more  attention 
should  be  paid  to  Nature  than  is  usually  done;  thus: — if  a  hut  or 
cavern  is  to  be  imitated^  the  materials  should  be  consistent  with  the 
scenery  around  it*  A  rustic  hut,  made  of  rugged  trunks,  or  branches 
of  trees,  should  be  placed  in  a  wilderness,  which  may  be  supposed 
to  furnish  such,  and  no  better,  materials:  it  should  be  enriched 
with  land  shells;  or,  if  a  spring  be  constructed  near  it,  river  shells 
may  be  added, — all  disposed  in  forms,  apparently  unstudied,  fill- 
ing crevices,  crowning  natural  projections,  or  grouped  in  careless 
clusters.  Shells,  fit  for  such  a  purpose,  may  be  found  in  almost 
every  hedge  and  stream.  For  a  cavern,  the  place  chosen  should 
be  either  among  rocks,  or  upon  uneven  rising  ground,  well  covered 
with  underwood;  in  the  former  case,  a  view  of  the  sea  will  greatly 
improve  the  beauty  of  the  design.  Shells,  placed  in  small  clusters, 
may  mark  the  approach  to  the  cavern ;  little  projections,  or  hollows, 
in  its  immediate  vicinity,  may  also  support,  or  contain,  either 


CONCHOLOGY.  87 

single  shells  or  groupes, — the  largest  and  plainest  being  selected 
for  such  situations;  the  cavern  itself,  if  constructed  with  a  very 
uneven  surface,  will  afford  shelter  for  the  most  gaudy  or  delicate 
kinds,  which  may  here  be  lavished  in  the  greatest  profusion.  As 
the  whole  must  look  like  the  work  of  an  untaught  admirer  of 
Nature,  or  one  unprovided  with  tools,  the  shells  should  appear 
to  be  supported  by  each  other,  or  by  fragments  of  rock,  coral,  or 
sticks;  and  by  no  means  be  so  arranged  that  without  cement  they 
would  naturally  fall;  neither  should  their  supports,  especially  if 
made  of  wood,  seem  placed  in  the  positions  they  occupy,  for  no 
other  purpose  than  to  hold  up  the  shells.  The  same  observations 
will  apply  to  small  grottos.  Rocks  or  turf  may  be  well  imitated 
by  rough  cork,  glued  and  pinned  together,  painted  or  covered  with 
moss.  Small-leaved  evergreens  and  moss  will  also  serve  for  the 
vegetable  scenery;  glass,  for  water;  and  a  painted  landscape,  or 
sea  view,  may  fill  the  back  ground.  It  will  conduce  much  to  the 
beauty  of  the  grotto,  to  groupe  many  shells  of  a  colour,  and  to 
avoid  great  contrasts.  Light  colours  suit  best  in  the  centres  of 
masses,  and  dark  ones  in  retired  situations.  Much  taste  may  be 
displayed  in  the  disposition  of  shells,  when  used  for  these  purposes. 
Temples,  houses,  or  human  figures,  covered  with  shells,  however 
gaudy  or  grotesque  they  may  appear,  are  both  unnatural  and  in- 
elegant. 

The  animals  of  different  tribes  of  shells  are  destined  to  perform 
various  offices;  such  as  to  remove  and  change  the  character  of 
dead,  or  dying,  organized  matters;  to  check  a  superabundant  in- 
crease of  other  small  animals  and  vegetables;  or  to  supply  food 
for  some  of  those  larger  animals  which  are  not  formed  to  live  upon 
vegetables.  Some  families  of  shells  even  live  upon  others.  To 
perform  their  several  functions,  we  find  them  placed  in  the  sea,  in 
fresh  water,  and  on  the  land.  The  greater  number  of  those  upon 
land,  which  are  all  Univalved  (or  composed  of  one  piece,)  feed  upon 
vegetables;  and  a  few,  on  dead  animal  matter.  A  small  number  of 
fresh-water  shells  are,  also,  Univalved:  the  animals  of  these,  and 
also  of  such  marine  Univalves  as  have  no  notch  at  the  base  of  the 
aperture,  feed  on  vegetables,  or  gelatinous  polipes,  which  they  bite, 
or  collect,  by  means  of  a  horny  upper  jaw,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
animals  living  in  land  shells.  The  carnivorous  animals  of  Univalved 
shells,  are  those  which  have  a  notch,  or  canal,  at  the  base  of  the 
aperture:  by  means  of  a  mouth  that  terminates  a  tube  of  variable 
length,  and  is  surrounded  with  minute  teeth,  they  bore,  with  a  cir- 
cular motion,  through  the  shells  of  such  animals,  chiefly  BIVALVES, 
8 


88  COXCHOLOGV. 

as  are  destined  for  their  prey ;  they  are  all  marine.  The  BIVALVES 
generally  feed  on  polypes,  or  the  soft  animal  substances  that  float 
in  their  way.  For  the  two  first  offices  assigned  to  them,  the  ani- 
mals of  shells  are  but  feeble  agents.  As  food  for  other  creatures, 
they  are  of  great  importance;  being  exceedingly  prolific,  and  so 
defended  by  Nature,  as  to  be  the  most  delicious  food  to  particular 
animals,  whose  stomachs  are  fitted  for  the  reception  of  them,  or 
to  such  as  arc  especially  endowed  with  skill  enough  to  deprive 
them  of  their  shells.  They  form  the  principal  support  of  some 
birds,  and  many  fishes.  It  is  almost  superfluous  to  mention,  that 
the  animals  of  several  shells,  such  as  the  Oyster,  the  Mussel, 
the  Scallop,  kc.  afford  food  for  man.  The  Common  Snail  (Helix 
horticola,)  and  the  Apple  Snail  (Helix  pomatia,)  when  boiled  in 
milk,  are  said  to  afford  a  light  and  strengthening  diet  for  invalids. 
The  Solen  is  eaten  in  Scotland ;  and  most  of  the  shell-fish  that 
live  in  the  sea,  may  be  safely  eaten,  if  fresh;  such,  on  the  con- 
trary, as  are  found  in  fresh  water,  are  not  palatable. 

But  it  is  now  time  for  us  to  become  a  little  more  scientifically 
instructive.  We  shall  begin  our  pleasant  task  by  describing  the 
material  of  shells,  and  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  constructed. 

Shells  are  hard  cases  formed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  strengthened 
by  gluten,  to  contain,  support,  and  protect  certain  soft  animals, 
to  which  they  are  united,  and  that  have  no  internal  bones.  Shells 
are  constructed  by  their  inhabitants  (if  animals  contained  in  cases, 
which  are  essentially  parts  of  themselves,  can  be  called  inhabi- 
tants,) of  a  deposition  from  their  mantles  (or  thick,  soft,  compound 
membranes  that  inclose  their  bodies.)  As  the  form  of  the  animal, 
or  its  mantle,  varies,  so,  also,  does  that  of  the  shell; — a  certain 
form  or  part  in  one,  always  indicating  a  corresponding  form  or 
part  in  the  other;  therefore,  by  the  knowledge  of  a  few  of  the 
animals  and  their  shells,  we  are  enabled  to  conceive  some  idea  of 
the  inhabitants  of  other  .-hells;  and  it  is  thus  we  discover,  that 
there  are  three  principal  forms,  or  classes,  of  animals ;  the  indi- 
viduals of  which,  generally  possess  shells,  properly  so  called  in 
the  restricted  sense  of  the  word.  The  classes  are: — 

1.  CIRRI!  KDKS. 

2.  CONCIUKI:KA. 

3.  MOI.I.I 

The  forms  of  the  shells  in  these  classes  are  so  materially  dif- 
ferent, that  we  shall  explain  the  terms  used  to  describe  each  class 
separately,  and  follow  these  observations  with  a  slight  notice  of 
some  of  the  genera. 


CONCHOLOGY. 


89 


CIRRIPEDES. 

The  first  class  of  animals  that  are  covered  by  shells, — CIRRI- 
PEDES, is  so  named,  in  consequence  of  the  individuals,  composing 
the  class,  having  certain  peculiar,  curled,  hairy  appendages,  that 
answer  the  purpose  of  arms:  it  is  divided  into  two  orders.  The 
shells  of  the  first  order,  SESSILE  (or  stemless,)  are  of  a  more  or 
less  conical  form,  and  composed  of  a  various  number  of  segments 
arranged  as  a  short  tube  (Fig.  1,  a,)  which  is  attached  by  its  base 
(6)  to  other  shells,  or  stones,  and  closed  by  an  operculum  (lid, 
or  door,  c,)  consisting,  generally,  of  four  valves  (shown  detached 
in  the  figure,  </,)  from  between  which  the  animal  protrudes  its 
arms  (e,  which  are  also  the  organs  of  respiration)  to  catch  its  prey. 
The  second  order  (PEDUNCULATED  CIRRIPEDES)  contains  shells 
whose  many  valves  (Fig.  2,  a)  are  united  by  membrane,  and  sup- 
ported by  a  membranous  tube,  or  peduncle  (or  stem,  Fig.  2,  6.) 
i  2  3 


The  most  remarkable  genus  of  the  first  order  (SESSILE)  is 
Tubicinella  (Fig.  3,)  which  lives  imbedded  in  the  skin  of  whales; 
on  which,  also,  Coronula  (Fig.  4)  fixes  itself.  Balanus  (Fig.  1)  is 
commonly  found  upon  oysters,  stones,  or,  in  fact,  anything  that 
remains  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  sea. 

Of  the  second  order,  or  PEDUNCULATED  CIRRIPEDES,  we  shall 
only  refer  to  one  genus;  namely, — Anatifer  (Fig.  2,)  which  has 
been  rendered  famous  by  Gerard,  of  botanical  celebrity;  who, 
supporting  a  vulgar  idea,  has  declared  it  to  be  the  egg  of  the 
barnacle  goose:  the  arms  (Fig.  2,  c)  bearing  some  resemblance  to 
the  tail  of  a  bird,  ha?  givi-n  countenance  to  the  story;  although 
they  are  more  like  the  tail  of  a  fighting-cock  than  of  a  goose. 
These  animals  suspend  themselves,  by  their  peduncles  (or 
to  wood,  or  other  substance •>,  that  float  in  the  sea. 


90 


CONCHOLOGY. 


CONCHIFERA. 

The  second  class  of  animals  included  in  shells,  is  the  CON- 
CHIFERA; all  of  which  have,  at  least,  two  conspicuous  valves,  or 
portions,  that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  are  united  by  a  hinge  to 
each  other;  whence  the  expressive,  and  sufficiently  expressive  term, 
BIVALVES.  Their  manners  and  powers  are  various, — the  natural 
consequences  of  a  great  diversity  of  forms,  as  well  in  their  shells 
as  in  themselves ;  arid  they  are  scarcely  more  numerous  than  they 
are  beautiful,  both  in  fresh  and  salt  water. 

Before  we  detail  some  of  the  many  genera  of  Bivalve  shells, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  into  an  explanation  of  the  terms  used 
in  describing  them:  vve  shall  do  this  as  briefly  as  we  can,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  make  such  allusions  to  the  form  and  parts  of  the 
animals,  as  will  show  the  dependence  of  the  shells  and  animals  upon 
5  each  other.  A  Bivalve  shell  is  essentially  com- 

posed of  two  valves  (Fig.  5,  a,  6,)united  by  the 
hinge  ligament  (c) ;  on  each  side  of  which  is  a 
more  or  less  curved  eminence  placed  before  it, 
and  called  the  beaks  (Fig.  6,  of):  from  these 
the  shells  increase  in  size.  That  part  of  the 
margin,  near  which  the  mouth  of  the  animal 
is  placed,  is  the  anterior  margin,  or  side  (e) ; 
the  opposite  is  the  posterior  margin,  side,  or 
extremity  (/) ;  between  the  posterior  margin 
and  the  beaks,  is  the  hinge  slope  and  line 
(Fig.  6,  g-) ;  and  opposed  to  the  beaks  is  the 
base  (h):  the  hinge  slope  is  situated  over  the  back  of  the  animal, 
parallel  to  which  would,  of  course,  be  the  front  (A,)  as  the  base  is 
sometimes  called,  particularly  in  Oysters  (Fig.  9,)  and  such  as 
have  no  foot  or  instrument  adapted  to  locomotion.  The  middle 
of  each  valve  is  called  its  disk  (Figs.  5  and  6,  f.)  As  the  two  valves 
hang  down  on  each  side  the  animal  from  the  hinge  or  beak,  the 
position  of  the  mouth,  or  anterior  margin,  determines  which  is 
the  right  valve  (a,)  and  which  the  left  (6):  the  flat  valve  of  an 
Oyster-shell  is,  consequently,  the  right  valve, — the  mouth  being 
near  the  hinge  at  (a,  Fig.  9,)  where  the  animal  is  shown  in  the 
flat  valve.  The  length  is  measured  from  the  beaks  to  the  base 
(Figs.  6  and  9,  d,  h,)  and  the  width,  from  the  anterior  to  the 
posterior  margin  (c,  f.)  The  united  depth  of  the  valves  is  mea- 
sured from  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  disk  of  one  valve  to  the 


CONCHOLOGY. 


91 


corresponding  part  of  the  other,  when  they  are  closed ;  and  the 
shell  is  either  compressed,  convex,  or  gibbose  (much  swollen,)  in 
proportion  as  this  measure  is  small  or  great:  it  is  said  to  be  equal- 
valved  when  both  valves  are  alike;  and  unequal-valved,  when  one 
is  deeper  than  the  other.  A  Bivalve  is  equi-lateral,  or  equal-sided, 
when  the  distances  from  the  beaks  to  the  anterior  and  posterior 
margins  are  equal;  when  one  exceeds  the  other,  it  is  said  to  be 
inequi-lateral,  or  unequal-sided. 

Some  shells  have  a  flattisli,  heart-shaped  space,  marked  out 
under  the  beaks,  upon  the  anterior  side,  by  an  impressed  line; — 
this  is  the  lunette  (Fig.  7,  a) :  others  have  angular 
projections  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  beaks,  which 
are  termed  ears  (Fig.  8,  a.)  The  surfaces,  or  disks, 
are  rough,  or  smooth,  or  ornamented  with  striae  (fine 
lines,)  furrows,  ridges,  or  ribs:  these  are  either  con- 
centric, when  parallel  to  the  margin, — longitudinal, 
when  perpendicular  to  it, — or  oblique,  when  between 
the  two:  the  lines  of  growth  are  always  concentric. 
The  surface  is,  also,  decorated  with  scales  and 
spines,  besides  a  great  variety  of  colours,  variously 
and  very  elegantly  disposed.  Some  of  the  animals 
of  this  class  have  additional  accessory  valves,  generally  very 
slender,  placed  upon  their  backs,  either  before  or  behind  the 
beaks;  and  some  form  shelly  tubes,  that  inclose  them  entirely, 
valves  and  all:  most  of  them  are  covered  with  a  membranous 
epidermis  (or  skin.) 

Thus  far  we  have  only  touched  upon  the  outsides  of  Bivalve 
shells;  their  insides  contain  a  few  parts  highly  essential  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  genera  from  each  other.  The  surfaces  to  which 
the  ligament  is  attached,  are  generally  external,  upon  a  raised 
part  of  the  margin  of  each  valve,  called  the  fulcrum;  but  some- 
times, as  in  Oysters,  the  ligament  is  internal,  or  within  the  beaks; 
it  is  then  seated  in  the  hinge-pit  (Fig.  9,  d)  :  in  others,  the  two  parts, 
of  which  the  ligament  is  composed,  are  separated;  one  part  being 
internal,  in  a  pit;  the  other,  external  and  marginal:  near  this  are 
frequently  several  teeth;  and,  sometimes,  at  a  little  distance  along 
the  margin,  other,  remote,  lateral  (or  side)  teeth.  The  teeth  of  the 
two  valves  lock  into  each  other,  and  serve  to  steady  them. 

It  is  necessary,  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  a  few  marks  within 

the  shells,  to  give  a  slight  description  of  the  animals  which  they 

contain.    For  illustration  we  select  the  Oyster  and  the  Mussel.    An 

Oyster,   when  lying  on  the  right,  or  flat  valve,  as  it  is  generally 

8* 


CONCHOLOGY. 


exhibited  (Fig.  9,)  shows  the  following  parts: — the  Lody  (6); 
the  mantle,  composed  of  two  lobes  (c) ;  the  muscle  and  its  t.  m!<m 
(g  and  t,)  by  which  it  closes  ami  liul.U  its 
valves  close, — the  internal  part  of  the  liga- 
ment being  a  spring  that  opens  them;  the 
white  heart  (A;,)  and  its  brown  auricle.  Ifhalf 
the  mantle,  or  dark-edged  beard,  be  turned 
back,  four  striated  laminae  (or  frills)  will  be 
exposed  (/)  ;  these  are  the  branchiae  (or  gills) : 
following  these  towards  the  hinge,  along  the 
anterior  margin,  four  other  pointed  laminae  will  be  found;  these 
unite  in  two  pairs,  each  like  the  letter  V  reversed,  and  are  the  lips 
(a):  the  mouth  is  circular  and  placed  in  the  angle  of  the  outer  lip: 
there  is  neither  head  nor  eyes.  Upon  attempting  to  turn  up  one  lobe 
of  the  mantle,  towards  the  posterior  margin,  it  will  be  found  con- 
nected to  the  other  lobe,  at  (m)  :  this  is  the  rudiment  of  a  more 
considerable  junction  observed  in  some  other  Conchiferous  animals. 
The  Mussel  (Fig.  10)  is  a  more  complicated  animal  than  the 
Oyster,  The  parts  necessary  to  be  observed,  at  present,  are  the 
mouth  (a,)  placed  at  the  small,  which  is 
the  anterior,  end  of  the  shell,  near  a  small 
d -Mfc^JSs^SSiflV*  ligament;  the  muscle  and  its  ligaments  (&,) 
— some  of  them  attached  to  the  foot,  to 
w  *  close  or  move  the  shells  or  foot  (e);  the 

two  lobes  of  the  mantle  (c,)  which  are  fringed  near  the  posterior 
extremity,  at  the  part  where  they  admit  food  to  the  mouth,  and 
water  to  the  branchi*  within  them,  and  then  unite  so  as  to  form 
a  short  tube  (d)  for  the  exit  of  the  water,  &c.  In  some  shells, 
these  fringed  parts  are  also  formed  into  a  tube,  and  the  two  tubes 
11  pass  together  out  of  the  shell:  when  these 

tubes  are  large,  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  shell  gapes  for  their  passage  (Fig.  11,) 
and  the  epidermis  is  produced  so  as  to  in- 
close them.  The  foot  (e)  is  shaped  like  a 
tongue;  and  the  byssus  (or  beard,)  at  its  base  (/,)  is  used  by  the 
animal  to  fasten  itself  to  other  bodies;  it  is  formed  of  a  numbei 
of  hairs,  with  a  flat  disk,  or  sucker,  at  the  end  of  each.  The 
foot  is  employed,  not  only  to  remove  the  animal  from  place  to 
place,  but  to  fix  these  suckers  so  as  to  serve  as  anchors,  when 
necessary.  The  Cockle  has  two  muscles  to  close  the  valves,  and 
two  long  tubes  formed  of  the  mantle,  but  no  byssus.  Within  all 
Bivalve  shells,  one  or  two  more  or  le-'jS  circular  impressions  may  be 


CONCHOLOGY. 


93 


observed;  they  are  the  marks  of  attachment  of  the  above-men- 
tioned muscles,  and  are,  therefore,  called  muscular  impressions 
(Fig.  12,  a):  when  there  are  two  of  them,  an  irregular  impressed 
line  may  be  traced  from  one  to  the  other  (the  impression  of  the 
mantle)  ;  upon  this  the  mantle  was  attached 
by  a  series  of  muscles :  if  the  mantle  be  formed 
into  long  tubes,  the  line  of  its  attachment  is 
curved  twice,  like  the  letter  S,  with  one  ex- 
tremity elongated  (6,  c) :  the  portion  not 
parallel  to  the  margin  of  the  shell,  termed 
the  sinus  (c,)  is  deeper  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  tubes, 
and  is  often  of  importance  in  distinguishing  genera.  The  foot 
is  employed,  either  to  draw  the  animal  forward,  as  a  leech  uses  its 
sucker,  or  to  push  him  the  contrary  way.  It  is  easy  to  obtain  a 
sight  of  the  first  method,  by  watching,  for  a  few  minutes,  in  a 
basin  of  water,  a  small  Bivalve,  that  is  very  common  in  rivers, 
13  ponds,  and  ditches,  called  Cyclas  (Fig.  13.) 

This  gratification  may  be  obtained  without 
putting  the  animal  to  much  inconvenience. 
The  presence  of  the  byssus  is  indicated  in 
the  shell  by  an  opening  between  the  edges 
of  the  valves  in  the  base,  or  a  groove  near 
the  hinge,  forming  a  sinus  for  it. 

The  Conchiferous  animals,  or, — in  equally  good,  but  more 
familiar  language, — Bivalve  shells,  are  divided  into  two  orders ; 
first, — those  with  two  muscular  impressions  in  each  valve;  second, 
those  with  only  one.  The  orders  are  divided  into  smaller  sections, 
or  families,  characterized  by  the  form  of  the  shell,  or  some  of 
14  the  parts  of  the  animal  above  described. 

We  shall  proceed  to  notice  a  few  of  the 
most  remarkable  genera. — The  Aspergillum 
(Fig.  14,)  or  Watering-pot,  is  a  tube  closed 
at  one  end  by  a  convex  disk,  perforated  by 
many  holes;  the  disk  is  surrounded  by  a  number  of  short,  small 
tubes;  upon  the  back  of  the  large  tube  are  rudiments  of  two 
valves  which  are  very  small,  and  blended 
15  with  the  surface  of  the  tube:  it  lives  in  sand. 

Clavagella  (Fig.  15)  is  a  very  irregular  tube, 
with  branches  at  the  closed  end;  within  it, 
is  one  free  or  moveable  valve,  united  by  a 
ligament  to  another,  which  is  blended  with  the  tube:  it  lives  in  sand 
and  coral.  Gastrocluena  forms  a  very  imperfect  tube,  containing 


94 


CONCHOLOGY. 


two  free  valves  which  are  united  by  a  ligament:  it  works  its  way 
far  into  corals  (Fig.  16.)  In  the  two  first-mentioned  genera,  and 
some  others,  the  animal  is  partly  attached  to  the  shelly  tube;  in 
this,  and  the  following,  the  tube  is  quite  distinct 
from  the  animals,  which  deposit  it  only  as  a 
lining  to  the  holes  they  live  in.  Teredo  is 
sometimes  inclosed  in  a  shelly  tube;  its  valves, 
gaping  at  both  extremities,  are  too  small  to  hold 
the  whole  animal ;  the  anterior  opening,  formed 
by  an  angular  sinus  in  each  (Fig.  17,  a,)  allows  the  large  flattened 
foot  to  be  exposed;  through  the  posterior  opening,  a  long  double 
tube  passes,  which  is  by  far  the  most  considerable  part  of  the 
animal:  on  the  back  of  the  valves  are  often 
small  accessory  valves;  and,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  tubes,  two  spoon-shaped  appendages 
(Fig.  17,  6)  :  within  each  beak  is  a  linear  curved 
process,  to  which  muscles,  connected  with  the 
foot,  are  attached.  The  Teredo  lives  in  wood  in 
the  sea;  and  was  the  terror  of  the  navy  before 
coppering  was  invented.  The  egg  being  depo- 
sited upon  the  surface  of  the  wood,  the  young 
animal,  as  soon  as  it  is  excluded,  begins  to  work 
its  way  inward,  and  continues  to  proceed  to  a  greater  depth  as  it 
grows  larger,  or  the  wood  wears  away,  forming  a  crooked  hole  (c), 
not  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  many  inches  long,  and  lining  it 
with  shell.  Its  mode  of  operating  is  curious:  the  flat  extremity  of 
the  foot  is  a  sucker,  by  which  the  animal  draws  the  valves  close 
to  the  wood;  and  a  semi-circular  motion  is  given  to  them,  by 
means  of  the  muscles  attached  to  the  internal  processes  above- 
mentioned;  so  that,  their  edges  being  very  sharp,  they  soon  cut 
away  a  portion  of  the  wood;  by  shifting  the  foot,  and  repeating 
the  process  continually,  they  bore  the  required  tubes, — the  foot 
acting  as  the  short  screw  at  the  end  of  a  gimlet.  As  the  animal 
grows,  the  edge  of  the  shell  is  renewed;  and  thus  is  always  sharp. 
We  have  been  rather  particular  in  our  notice  of  these  four 
genera,  because  they  offer  us  an  opportunity  of  showing  by  what 
links,  apparently  very  different  subjects,  such  as  the  Watering-pot 
and  the  Teredo,  are  brought  together;  and  because  the  terrific 
operations  of  the  latter  have  been  imperfectly  explained.  It  is  by 
pursuing  the  study  thus,  that  natural  history  will  become  useful; 
and  the  mere  pleasure  arising  from  a  knowledge  of  the  modus 
operandi,  and  perfection  of  the  numerous  kinds  of  living  apparatus 


CONCHOLOGY. 


95 


brought  into  view,  would  alone  amply  repay  the  trouble  of  investi- 
gation. In  our  selection  of  genera,  for  illustration,  our  limits  will 
not  permit  us,  in  general,  to  take  more  than  one  of  a  family. 

Pholas  (Fig.  18,  a,  the  accessory  valve ;  6,  the  internal  curved 
process,)  in  the  general  structure  of  its  animal  and  shell,  is  much 
like  the  Teredo;  but  its  valves  are  capable  of  containing  the 
whole  animal;  its  tubes  (c)  are  shorter  and  not  furnished  with 
spoon-shaped  appendages;  the  surface  of  the  shell  is  rough;  its 
anterior  edge  toothed ;  and  it  works  its  way  into  wood,  chalk,  and 
sand-stone,  as  the  Teredo  does  into  wood  only.  Solen,  or  Razor- 
shell  (Fig.  19,)  is  an  instance  of  a  shell  many  times  wider  than 
long:  the  animal  has  a  very  large  foot,  by  which  it  can  draw  its 
shells  up  and  down,  perpendicularly,  in  sand  on  the  sea-shore, 
with  great  rapidity.  In  Mya  (Figs.  20  and  Fig.  11,)  the  broad 
tooth  in  the  hinge  is  remarkable:  the  tubes  are  covered  with  an 
elongation  of  the  epidermis  far  beyond  the  truncated  (or  short- 
ened,) gaping  extremity  of  the  valves.  Mactra  (Fig.  21)  is  an 
example  of  an  interior  ligament  accompanied  by  lateral  teeth. 
Corbula  (Fig.  22)  is  another  example  of  internal  ligament:  the 
valves  are,  also,  unequal,  neither  alike  in  convexity  nor  size;  the 
animal  has  a  slender  foot,  and  the  hinge  one  curved  tooth.  Pan- 
dora, of  the  same  family,  is  a  pretty  pearly  shell,  with  one  valve 
quite  flat,  and  the  other  curved  (Fig.  23.) 


0 

Petricola  (Fig.  24)  is  an  unequal  sided,  rather  triangular  Bi- 
valve, with  two  thin  teeth  in  one  valve,  and  one  or  two  in  the  other; 
it  belongs  to  a  remarkable  family  of  shells,  that  bore  holes  in  rocks, 
not  by  mechanical  powers,  as  the  Pholas  does,  but  by  means  of 
some  solvent  discharged  upon  the  stone:  they  are  confined  to  cal- 
careous rocks  or  corals;  the  holes  they  make  fit  them  with  such 
nicety,  that  they  cannot  turn  round  in  them.  Tellina  (Fig.  25)  is  a 
common  genus  of  elegantly  coloured  and  formed  shells,  belong- 


96 


CONCHOLOGY. 


ing  to  a  family  that  have  the  fulcra,  supporting  the  ligament,  very 
prominent  (Fig.  25,  a):  most  of  the  species  are  tender,  llattish 
shells,  and  are  known  by  a  slight  bend  in  the  margin  of  the  base, 
towards  the  posterior  extremity  (Fig.  25,  6.)  Cyclas  (Fig.  13)  is 
one  of  the  few  BIVALVES  that  inhabit  fresh  water;  the  British 
species  is  roundish  and  less  than  a  nut.  Venus  (Figs.  7,  11,  and 
26,)  is  placed  in  the  same  family  (Fig.  26,  a,  is  the  hinge.)  The  shells 
collected  under  this  genus  have  been  thus  named,  because,  among 
them,  Nature  has  eminently  displayed  her  power 
of  producing  a  great  variety  of  beautiful  forms  and 
colours:  a  heart-shaped  impression  on  the  ante- 
rior slope,  called  the  lunette,  is  the  appropriate 
decoration  of  the  genus.  The  Cardium  (Fig.  27,) 
or  Cockle,  is  the  type  of  the  next  family.  This 
well-known  shell  has  two  pairs  of  remote  teeth, 
— one  pair  at  each  end  of  the  hinge  line;  it  has, 
also,  a  lunette,  but  more  deeply  impressed,  and 
of  a  rougher  character,  than  the  lunette  of  Venus. 
The  structure  of  the  shell  is  radiated,  and  the 
surface,  consequently,  ribbed  longitudinally,  with  toothed  edges. 
The  celebrated  Ark  Shell,  or  Area  (Fig  28,)  is  most  conspicuous  in 
the  next  family;  of  which,  a  great  number  of 
small  teeth,  arranged  in  a  line  along  the  hinge, 
mark  all  the  genera:  a  flat  space,  or  area,  be- 
tween the  beaks  occurs  in  several.  In  Area,  there 
is  an  opening  between  the  front  edges  of  the 
valves,  for  the  passage  of  the  byssus,  or  beard. — 
Trigonia  (Fig.  29)  is  a  strong,  beautiful,  pearly 
shell,  and  the  only  species  of  its  genus,  or  member 
of  its  family,  that  has  not  been  wrecked  in  the 
current  of  time,  which  has  buried  so  many  ante- 
diluvian races  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  hinge  teeth  are  strongly  striated,  with  small  furrows. 

The  fresh-water  Mussel  (Unio,  figs.  5  and  6)  is  one  of  a  family 
that  slums  salt  water,  and,  indeed,  cannot  live  in  it:  the  smooth 
olive-green  epidermis  that  covers  its  even  surface,  is  characteristic 
of  shells  peculiar  to  fresh  water;  but,  although  it  is  strong,  it 
does  not  wholly  protect  the  calcareous  shell  from  die  acid  given 
out,  by  the  putrefying  vegetable  matters,  at  the  bottoms  of  lakes ; 
the  beaks  (and  apices  of  Univalves)  are,  consequently,  often 
corroded  in  holes,  or  eroded, — an  accident  that  cannot  happen  in 
salt  water,  where  the  same  agent  is  not  produced, 


CONCHOLOGY. 


.97 


Chama  (Fig.  30,)  and  Liberia  (Fig.  31,)  compose  the  last 
family  of  shells  with  two  muscular  impressions.  They  both 
attach  themselves  to  rocks  or  stones  by  the  sub- 
stance itself  of  the  surface  of  one  valve.  The 
Chama  is  a  sea  shell,  with  a  pair  of  thick  teeth 
in  the  hinge,  and  squamose,  or  scaly,  surface. 
The  Etheria  is  a  fresh-water  shell,  without  teeth 
in  the  hinge,  very  irregularly  formed,  and  pearly; 
it  is  found  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  Nile. — The 
Bivalve  shells  with  only  one  muscular  impression, 
are  less  numerous  than  the  others:  they,  for  the 
most  part,  are  attached  to  other  BIVALVES  by  the 
shell,  as  Oysters;  or  by  a  byssus  (beard,)  as  the 
Mussel.  The  first  genus  is  Tridacna  (the  Clamp 
Shell,  formerly  called  Chama,  fig.  32) :  it  is  the  most  ponderous 
shell  known;  its  margin  has  deep  angular  sinuses  in  it,  terminating 
large  squamose  ribs;  the  valves  are  equal. — Mytilus,  (the  Mussel, 
fig.  10,)  and  Pinna  (Wing  Shell,  fig.  33,)  are  two  genera  of  the 
next  family.  The  anterior  extremity  of  the  first  is  always  pointed; 
the  same  part  of  the  other  is  truncated  (as  if  cut  oft)  and  open  (a) ; 
it  forms  one  angle  of  a  triangle  whose  opposite  side  is  also  open  (6) : 
the  shell  is  extremely  brittle,  being  composed  chiefly  of  fibres 
perpendicular  to  the  surface.  Avicula  (Fig.  34)  is  a  shell  resembling 
a  Mussel,  with  a  projection  on  one  side;  along  a  part  of  whose 
edge,  the  hinge-ligament  extends;  which  gives  it  the  general  form 
of  a  bird's  wing.  Malleus  (Fig.  35,)  or  the  Hammer  Oyster,  has 
often  two  similar  projections,  or  ears;  but  the  ligament  is  confined 
to  a  small  space  beneath  the  beaks,  and  below  it  is  a  sinus  for  the 
byssus  (a.)  These  are  two  of  the  several  genera  of  the  third  family. 

32  34  36  , 


Pecten  (Fig.  8,)  a  highly  ornamented  genus  of  shells,  known  by  two 
small  ears  and  generally  radiated  surface,  and  Spondylus  (Fig.  36,) 


98 


CONCHOLOGY. 


with  a  very  curious  hinge  (a)  and  large  spines  upon  its  surface,  are 
of  another  family:  the  spines  of  the  latter  are  attached,  at  the  time 
of  their  growth,  to  rocks  or  coral,  so  as  to  fix  the 
shell.  This  leads  us  to  Ostrea  (the  Oyster,  fig.  9,) 
that  often  fixes  itself  by  the  laminae  of  the  whole 
surface  of  one  valve;  and  the  Anornia  (Fig.  37,) 
a  pearly  shell,  common  upon  Oysters  and  stones; 
which  has  a  hole  in  one  valve,  and  through  this  a 
portion  of  the  tendon  passes;  its  extremity  becom- 
ing shelly,  and  uniting  to  the  Oyster  Shell,  or  rock, 
so  as  to  fix  the  animal  permanently.  The  Placuna, 
or  Chinese  Window  Shell  (Fig.  38,)  is  like  two  flat 
pieces  of  dull  glass,  with  the  fulcrum  and  hinge- 
ligament  shaped  like  the  letter  V,  inside  it:  it  has 
been  arranged  with  the  Oyster. — The  last  genus  of  BIVALVES  we 
shall  notice  is  the  Terebratula  (Figs.  39  and  40):  both  its  animal 
and  shell  are  very  different  from  any  we  have 
before  mentioned.  Two  long  fringed  arms 
are  coiled  up,  when  the  animal  is  at  rest, 
within  the  shell;  there  is  a  hole  through  the 
beak  of  one  valve  for  the  passage  of  a  kind 
of  compacted  byssus  (Fig.  39,  a,)  by  which  the 
shell  is  suspended  from  sub-marine  rocks;  and 
the  hinge  is  formed  of  two  sockets,  with  teeth 
that  work  in  them,  but  without  a  ligament 
(Fig.  40) ;  it  has,  also,  various,  more  or  less 
linear,  appendages,  composed  of  shell,  within 
the  valves. — We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  next  class. 

MOLLUSCA. 

The  term,  MOLLUSCA,  is  limited  to  the  third  class  of  animals, 
many  of  which  are  provided  with  shells;  and  as  most  of  these  shells 
are  constructed  of  one  principal  piece,  or  valve,  each,  they  are  very 
properly  styled  UNIVALVES,  generally;  although  a  few  have  many 
valves,  and  others  have  shelly  opercula.  The 
animals  of  this  class  have  distinct  heads  (Fig.  41, 
6),  containing  in  their  mouths  hard  substances, 
apparently  teeth,  and  are  generally  furnished 
with  eyes  and  tentacular  (or  feelers,  fig.  41,  c) ; 
they  have  no  part  of  the  body  jointed:  the  shell 
is  sometimes  internal,  sometimes  external,  and  some  of  the 
animals  are  without  any. — The  first  order,  PTEROPODES,  contains 


CONCHOLOGY. 


99 


such  animals  of  this  class  as  are  furnished  with  two  opposite  equal 
fins,  disposed  for  swimming  vertically  (Fig.  42,  a,)  which  they  are 
constantly  obliged  to  do,  having  no  foot:  their 
shells  (6)  are  very  thin  and  horny. — The  second 
order,  GASTEROPODES,  is  composed  of  animals  fur- 
nished with  a  flat  surface,  or  foot  (Fig.  41,  a,)  con- 
nected with  internal  muscles  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  animal,  and  by  means  of  which  it 
crawls,  as  the  Slug,  or  Limax  (Fig.  41.)  Several  are  furnished 
with  shells;  but  none  possess  the  shell  large  enough  to  hold  the 
whole  animal. — The  third  order,  TRACHELIPODES,  is  composed  of 
animals  similar  to  those  of  the  Slug,  but  with  the  body  extended 
beyond  the  foot,  curled  into  a  spiral  form,  and  contained  in  a 
shell. — The  CEPHALOPODES  (Figs.  92  and  94)  have  long  arms  ar- 
ranged round  a  large  head,  with  two  great  eyes,  and  a  parrot-like 
beak,  peeping  out  of  a  sac,  or  mantle;  the  shell  is  sometimes 
internal;  the  arms  are  furnished  with  a  row  of  circular  horny 
suckers,  by  which  they  seize  their  food. — The  HETEROPODES  are 
furnished  with  one  or  more  irregular  fins,  disposed  for  swimming 
horizontally  (Fig.  95,  a.) 

For  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  terms  used 
in  describing  the  shells  of  this  class,  we  shall 
consider  them  as  of  three  principal  kinds:  first, 
those  composed  of  many  segments  (Fig.  43); 
the  segments  are  arranged  in  a  line  on  the  back 
of  the  animal;  the  first  is,  of  course,  that  over 
the  head  (a,)  known  by  the  mouth;  it  has 
neither  tentacular  nor  eyes;  the  sides,  (or  mar 
gin)  of  the  animal  (6,)  are  squamose  (scaly,)  cili- 
ated (hairy,)  &c. — The  second  kind  are  concave 
cones  (Fig»  44)  placed  upon  the  back  of  the  animal;  of  these, 
the  pointed  extremity,  which  is  sometimes  a 
little  curved,  or  revolute,  and  generally  directed 
forwards  (Fig.  44,  a,)  is  called  the  apex.  In 
one  genus,  the  apex  is  perforated  (Fig.  45)  to 
admit  of  the  passage  of  water  to  the  branchiae; 
another  has  a  fissure  in  the  edge  of  the  shell 
for  the  same  purpose;  the  branchiae,  or  gills, 
in  these  genera,  being  placed  in  a  peculiar  ca- 
vity, not  round  the  body  under  the  mantle,  as  in  the  Patella: 
the  edge  is  also  called  the  base;  within  their  hollow  surface  may 
generally  be  traced  the  marks  of  the  part  where  the  mantle  was 
9 


100 


CONCHOLOGY. 


attached:  the  head  is  placed  where  the  impression  of  the  mantle 
is  discontinued;  hence,  the  front,  back,  right  or  left  sides,  may 
be  known:  within  the  cavity  of  some  is  a  spiral 
septum  (or  partition.)  The  last  kind  are  the  spiral, 
or  convoluted  shells;  they  are,  by  far,  the  most 
numerous:  a  common  Snail  is  a  good  example 
(Fig.  47,  a.)  A  spiral  shell  is  a  long  tapering  tube,  regularly 
curled  upon  an  axis,  either  really  existing,  or  to  be  imagined; 
when  existing,  the  axis  is  called  the  columella;  the  smallest  end 
of  the  tube  is  the  apex;  the  other,  the  aperture;  the  plane  of 
the  aperture  is  sometimes  in  the  same  direction  as  the  axis;  it  is 
then  longitudinal  (Fig.  46);  at  other  times  it  is 
oblique  (Fig.  56,)  or,  transverse  (Fig.  49,  p.  103.) 
The  aperture  is  considered  as  composed  of  two 
lips;  the  columellar,  or  inner  lip,  and  the  outer 
lip,  opposite  to  its  edge;  it  is  sometimes  furnished 
with  a  peristoma  (or  thick  rim) ;  and  a  notch,  or 
sinus,  or  a  canal,  often  occurs  at  either  the  upper 
or  lower  junction  of  the  lips  (Fig.  81,  a,)  or  at  both  places  (Fig.  88)  ; 
a  canal  at  the  lower  junction,  or  base,  forms  the  beak.  The  several 
rings  that  compose  the  shell,  are  called  whorls;  all,  excepting  the 
last  formed,  taken  together,  constitute  the  spire;  it  is  either  more 
or  less  conical,  or  discoid,  or  internal:  when  internal,  the  shell  is 
said  to  be  convoluted  (Fig.  88);  it  is  then  formed  of  a  flattened 
tube,  rolled  up  like  a  roll  of  paper:  when  discoid,  it  resembles  a 
French  horn ;  and  when  conical,  turreted,  lanceolate,  &c.  it  is  more 
in  the  form  of  a  screw.  The  base  of  the  shell  is 
that  part  about  the  aperture  which  rests  upon  the 
animal  as.  it  crawls  (Fig.  47,  6.)  The  opposite 
part  in  some  convoluted  shells  is  the  back.  The 
length  of  the  axis  is  the  length  of  the  shell ;  the 
largest  diameter  is  the  width;  the  outer  lip  gene- 
rally indicates  the  front;  a  hollow  in  the  centre 
of  the  shell  is  called  the  umbilicus,  which  is  cover- 
ed, in  full-grown  shells,  by  the  columellar  lip;  the 
columella  sometimes  has  elevations  upon  it,  called 
*  plaits.  Univalve  shells,  like  BIVALVES,  are  co- 
vered by  an  epidermis :  in  some,  this  is  constructed  of  ciliated  lamina? 
(or  fringes,)  hut  it  is  generally  smooth ;  the  surface  is  ornamented 
with  bands,  carinse  (or  sharp  ridges,)  following  the  curvature  of  the 
whorls,  costee  (or  ribs  across  the  whorls,)  knobs  or  tubercles, 
spines,  &c.  besides  a  great  variety  of  colours.  The  shell  is  com- 


CONCHOLOGY.  101 

posed,  as  in  BIVALVES,  of  a  deposition  of  calcareous  earth,  upon  a 
film  of  gelatine,  from  the  edges  of  the  mantle  of  the  animal,  and 
is  constructed  at  successive  periods;  the  conclusion  of  each  period 
is  sometimes  marked  by  a  thick  edge  to  the  aperture,  or  a  row  of 
spines ;  this  is  called  either  a  varix  or  suture.  As  BIVALVES  have 
their  accessory  valves,  so  some  spiral  UNIVALVES  have  a  single 
one,  which  is  placed  upon  the  back  of  the  foot,  and  closes  the 
aperture  when  the  animal  has  retired  into  the  shell;  it  is  the 
operculum,  and  is  either  horny  (Fig.  81,  6)  or  shelly. 

Certain  Bivalve  shells,  as  we  have  before  observed,  corrode 
lime-stone  rocks,  and  live  in  the  holes  so  made;  some  of  them 
deposit  earthy  matter  within  the  holes  they  have  made.  The  same 
powers  are  exerted  by  many  UNIVALVES  upon  their  own  shells: 
thus,  they  eat  away,  as  it  were,  a  great  part  of  the  surface  of  such 
portions  as  would  become  internal,  when  they  increase  the  size  of 
the  shell  by  additions  to  the  edge  of  the  aperture,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  too  great  an  increase  of  weight;  and  they 
also  remove  spines,  which  would  obstruct  the  passage  of  the 
animal  through  the  interior,  were  they  to  be  left.  The  power  that 
BIVALVES  have  of  attaching  their  shells  to  other  bodies  by  their 
own  substance,  is  also  possessed  by  a  few,  and  only  a  few,  UNI- 
VALVES, which  are  called  Carriers,  from  their  cementing  to  their 
own  shells  other  shells,  or  stones,  or  corals. 

Having  said  thus  much  of  the  shells,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  add 
only  a  few  words  to  what  we  have  already  remarked  relative  to 
the  animals. 

The  mantle  is  a  thick  membrane  that,  more  or  less,  envelopes 
the  animal:  in  the  Slug  (Fig.  41,  d,  p.  98,)  it  is  a  shield-like 
appendage  upon  the  back;  in  the  Garden  Snail,  it  is  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  shell,  and  the  animal's  head  and  foot  can  be  drawn 
into  it.  The  organs  of  respiration  are  commonly  under  the  mantle. 
In  the  common  Slug  and  Snail,  and  many  fresh-water  shells,  a 
part  of  the  mantle  can  be  so  contracted,  at  the  will  of  the  animal, 
as  to  form  a  round  opening  (a,)  and  in  some,  a  tube  (Fig.  55,  ay 
p.  103)  to  admit  air;  while  in  shells  with  beaks  (Fig.  81,  c,  p.  106,) 
it  is  always  in  part  formed  into  a  tube,  or  a  sinus,  to  conduct 
water,  charged  with  air,  to  the  branchiae.  The  mantle  is  so  large 
in  some  animals,  as  to  be  spread  over  the  shell:  such  animals  have 
internal  shells. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  examples  of  each  order  of 
Molluscous  animals,  selecting  only  such  as  bear  shells. 

Of  the  PTEROPODES,  the  genera  are  few;   one  of  them  is  the 


102  CONCHOLOGY. 

Hyalea  (Fig.  42) ;  its  shell  is  a  transparent  bubble  with  two  lateral 
spines,  and  a  third  at  the  base. 

The  GASTEROPODESare  divided  into  two  sections,  distinguished 
by  the  organs  of  respiration:  the  one  has  branchiae,  or  gills,  and 
breathes  through  the  medium  of  water,  like  fishes,  and  is  marine; 
in  the  other,  the  same  organs  resemble  lungs,  and  it  is  terrestrial 
breathing,  of  course,  free  air.  Chiton  (Fig.  43)  is  composed  of 
a  series  of  valves  upon  the  buck  of  the  animal.  Patella  (Fig.  44,) 
or  Limpet,  a  simple  hollow  cone,  with  the  apex  directed  upwards, 
is  the  least  compound  of  all  shells.  Fissurella 
(Fig.  45,)  like  Patella,  with  a  hole  in  place  of 
the  apex, — and  Bulla  (Fig.  46,)  a  convoluted 
shell, — belong  to  animals  of  the  first  section  ;  the 
latter  has  a  mantle  formed  of  lobes,  that  can  be 
spread  over  the  shell,  and  is  without  tentaculas 
(or  feelers,  commonly  called  horns.)  Testacella  (Fig.  48,)  an  animal 
like  a  Slug,  with  a  small  shell  upon  its  tail,  is  of  the  second  section. 
The  third  order,  TRACHELIPODES,  is  divided  into  twosections, 
distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  aperture  of  the  shell.  In  BI- 
VALVES, we  observed,  that  the  mantle  was  sometimes  formed  into 
one  or  two  tubes;  the  mantle  of  Univalve  shells  has  sometimes  a 
parallel  conformation,  which  is  the  case  in  one  of  the  sections  of 
this  order.  The  first  section  contains  shells  whose  animals  breathe 
through  a  simple  hole  formed  in  the  mantle;  and  whose  aperture, 
consequently,  has  no  need  of  a  sinus,  or  canal,  at  its  inferior 
edge.  The  shells  of  the  second  section  have  either  a  sinus  at  the 
base,  with  the  edge  of  the  aperture  a  little  produced  about  it,  or 
the  same  part  enlarged,  so  as  to  form  a  straight  or  reflected  canal, 
containing  a  tube  formed  of  the  mantle.  Some  of  the  shells  of 
each  section  have  an  operculum;  it  is  placed  upon  the  back  of 
the  foot,  and  connected  with  a  bulky  tendon  that  is  attached  to 
the  columella.  The  common  Periwinkle  (Turbo  littoreus,  fig.  65,) 
is  a  familiar  example:  its  tendon  is  white;  it  will  also  serve  to 
show  the  branchiae,  like  small  combs,  within  the  mantle.  Many 
lesser  divisions  and  families  are  formed  under  each  section.  We 
must  content  ourselves,  at  present,  with  a  few  observations  upon 
some  of  the  most  striking  genera. 

Helix,  or  Snail  (Fig.  47,  p.  100,)  is  a  more  or  less  globose 
or  depressed  shell,  too  common  not  to  be  generally  known;  the 
eyes  of  the  animal,  as  in  all  land  shells,  are  placed  at  the  ends 
of  two  of  the  tentaculae  (or  feelers,)  of  which  there  are  four. 

Anostoma  has  a  depressed  spire,  and  the  aperture  remarkably 


CONCHOLOGY. 


103 


turned  up  on  the  back  of  it,  and  lined  with  large  teeth  (Fig.  49.) 
Clausilia  (Fig.  50)  has  a  very  long  spire,  widest  in  the  middle;  the 
whorls  curl  in  a  direction  reverse  to  that  of  the  Helix;  and  the 
columella  has  a  valve  attached  to  it  by  a  linear  shelly  spring,  that 
acts  the  part  of  an  operculum  (a.)  Achatina  (Fig.  51)  is  an  oval 
shell;  the  base  of  the  aperture  is  truncated,  as  if  a  piece  had  been 
cut  off,  so  as  to  form  a  rounded  sinus,  or  notch;  some  of  the 
species  are  striped  like  the  Zebra, — after  which  animal  one  is  named 
(Fig.  51)  ;  they  are  the  largest  land  shells  known.  Auricula  (Fig.  52) 
is  a  genus  of  land  shells,  in  which  the  apertures  are  fancied  to  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  ears  of  various  quadrupeds,  after  which 
the  species  are  named:  as,  Felis,  or  Midse  (Fig.  52,)  &c.  The  edge 
of  the  longitudinal  aperture  is  thickened,  and  the  columella  plaited. 
Planorbis  and  Limea  (Figs.  53  and  54,)  are  common  fresh-water 
shells:  the  first  is  discoid;  the  second,  ovate  and  tender,  with  a  large 
aperture  and  flattened  spiral  columella.  They  have  each  only  two 
tentaculae,  with  eyes  at  their  base,  and  are  obliged  to  come  up  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe  air. 


Ampullaria  (Fig.  55)  is  a  globose  fresh-water  shell,  with  a  hard 
horny  operculum :  one    of   its  species    is    the  largest   fresh-water 
shell  known:   it  would  hold  above  a  pint.      Nerita 
(Fig.  56)  is  almost  globose,  with  a  flat,  broad  colu- 
mella placed  across  the  aperture,  whose  inner  surface, 
near  the  edge,  as  well  as  the  edge  of  the  columella, 
is  either  thickened  or  toothed.      Neritina  (Fig.  57,) 
or    fresh-water    Nerite,    greatly   resembles    Merita; 
but    the  lip  is  not    thickened,  nor   toothed,  and   the 
animal  dissolves  the  interior   of  the  spire:   it  lives 
in  fresh-water  only,  while  the  Nerita  requires  salt 
water ;    they  both  have  shelly  opercula. 
9* 


104 


CONCHOLOGY. 


Janthina  (Fig.  58)  is  a  somewhat  globose,  very  tender  shell, 
remarkable  for  its  uniform  pale  violet,  or  blue  colour.  This,  and 
all  the  remaining  genera,  are  marine,  and  mostly  furnished  with 
opercula.  Haliotis,  or  Ear-shell  (Fig.  59,)  is  a  flat,  very  broad 
shell,  composed  of  brilliant  pearl;  the  aperture  of  which  occupies 
half  its  surface  ;  the  spire  is  very  small,  and,  from  it,  a  row  of  holes 
extends  to  the  front  of  the  edge;  it  has  no  operculum.  Dcntalium, 
or  Tooth-shell  (Fig.  60,)  is  an  attenuated  conical  tube,  slightly  bent, 
and  open  at  both  extremities;  the  animal  has  a  small  head  and 
large  foot,  both  of  them  capable  of  being  withdrawn  into  a  thick 
mantle:  the  name  is  taken  from  the  resemblance  of  the  shell  to 
an  elephant's  tusk.  Vermetus  (Fig.  61,)  so  named  from  its  re- 
semblance to  a  worm,  is  a  simple  long  tube,  irregularly  curled, 
except  near  its  commencement,  and  fixed  to  rocks  by  its  apex. 

58  60  62  64 


Scalaria,  the  Wentle-trap  (Fig.  62,)  is  a  round  tube,  regularly 
curled  into  a  conical  spire,  but  without  a  cohunelki:  every  time 
the  shell  is  enlarged,  the  edge  of  the  lip  is  reflected,  or  turned 
outwards;  thus  forming  many  rings,  or  ribs,  upon  each  whorl. 
Solarium,  or  the  Perspective  (Fig.  63,)  is  short,  conical,  and  wide, 
with  a  sharp  edge  to  the  base,  and  a  very  large  umbilicus 
in  the  centre  of  it,  within  which  the  whorls  are  seen  dimi- 
nishing to  the  apex;  the  operculum  is  thin  and  horny. 
Trochus  (Fig.  64)  is  conical,  with  nearly  a  flat  base,  square 
aperture,  and  produced  columella:  the  operculum  is  thick, 
shelly,  and  variously  sculptured.  Turbo  (Fig.  65)  is  an 
ovate,  conical,  or  nearly  globose  shell,  with  a  round  aper- 
ture, and  thin  horny  operculum.  The  Periwinkle  belongs 
to  this  genus.  Turritella,  or  Screw-shell  (Fig.  66,)  is  formed  of  a 
turreted,  or  very  much  elongated,  pointed  spire,  with  a  nearly 
round  aperture,*  this  is  the  last  genus  of  the  first  section. 


CONCHOLOGY. 


105 


The  following  genera  belong  to  the  second  section: — Cerithium 
(Fig.  67)  is  a  turreted  shell,  with  an  expanded  outer  lip  and  short 
beak.  Plurotoma  (Fig.  68)  resembles  Cerithium,  but  has 
a  deep  sinus  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  outer  lip,  and  a  pro- 
duced beak.  Turbinellus  (Fig.  69,)  and  Pyrula  (Fig.  70,) 
are  pear-shaped,  with  a  short  spire  and  long  beak ;  the  first 
has,  also,  plaits  on  the  columella.  Ranella  (Fig.  71,)  Murex 
(Fig.  72,)  and  Triton  (Fig.  73,)  have  all  various  sutures,  or 
varices,  arid  more  or  less  elongated  beaks :  the  sutures  are  orna- 
mented with  scales,  are  lamelliform  (like  plates  or  scales,)  foliaceous 
(leafy,)  spinose  (formed  of  spines,)  tuberculated  (knobbed,)  ser- 
rated (toothed  like  a  saw,)  &c. 


Ranella  has  the  varices  so  placed  as  to  form  two  rows  along  the 
spire;  that  is,  one  is  placed  at  every  half  turn  of  each  whorl. 
Murex  has  at  least  three  rows, — often  more ;  but  in  Triton,  there 
are  only  three  sutures  to  two  whorls.  To  this  genus  belongs  one  of 
the  largest  spiral  shells ; — Triton  variegatus,the  Trumpet  (Fig.  73.) 


When  the  lip  of  the  Pteroceras  (Fig.  74)  is  full  grown,  it  is  sup- 
plied with  large  finger-shaped  processes;  the  aperture  is  generally 
about  as  long  as  the  shell,  and  narrow ;  one  kind  is  called  the  Spider 
Strombus;  it  has  the  outer  lip  very  thick,  and  a  sinus  in  its  margin, 
near  the  channelled,  recurved  beak. — Strombus  Gigas  (Fig.  75)  is 


106 


CONCHOLOGY. 


the  common  Conch-shell,  which  is  so  much  admired  when  the 
aperture  is  of  a  deep  rose  colour.  Cassis,  or  the  Helmet  (Fig.  76,) 
is  a  shell  which  may  be  seen  almost  every  day;  the  spire  is  nearly 
flat,  and  the  aperture  as  long  as  the  shell,  narrow,  with  both  lips 
thickened,  and  toothed;  the  columellar  lip  covering  the  base, 
which  is  longitudinal,  with  regard  to  the  spire.  Purpura  (Fig.  77) 
has  a  short  canal  and  flattened  columella:  a  small  white  species, 
Purpura  Lapillus  (Fig.  77,)  sometimes  banded  with  yellow  or 
brown,  with  a  scaly  surface,  is  common  on  the  English  coast. 
Monoceras  (Fig.  78)  much  resembles  the  last;  it  is  known  by  a 
long  pointed  tooth  in  the  outer  lip;  whence  its  name,  signifying 
Unicorn.  Harpa,  or  the  Harp-shell  (Fig.  79,)  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  shells;  it  is  easily  known  by  the  smooth  ribs,  which 
resemble  the  strings  of  a  harp;  the  columella  is  plaited.  Dolium, 
or  Tun-shell  (Fig.  80,)  is  a  large,  thin,  globose  shell,  with  a  wide 
aperture,  and  toothed,  or  crenated,  outer  lip;  it  is  sometimes  large 
enough  to  hold  a  gallon.  Buccinum,  or  Whelk  (Fig.  81,)  is  elon- 
gated, with  a  very  short  canal,  or,  rather,  only  a  sinus,  at  the 
base,  and  no  sutures  upon  the  whorls. 

77  79 


Buccinum  undatum  (Fig.  81, 6,)  is  the  common  Whelk.  Terebra, 
or  needle  (Fig.  82,)  is  a  turreted,  sharply-pointed  shell,  with 
the  columella  curved,  and  a  sinus  at  the  base. 
Columbella  (Fig.  83)  has  a  short  spire,  a  long 
aperture,  a  plaited  columella,  and  the  middle  of 
the  outer  lip  thickened.  C.  Mercatoria  (Fig.  83) 
is  very  common  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  in 
warm  latitudes,  and  used  as  money.  Mitra  (the 
Mitre,  fig.  84,)  is  a  turreted,  or  elongated  shell, 
with  the  aperture  elongated  and  columella  plaited, 
— the  lower  plaits  smallest.  Several  species  have 
a  series  of  short  spines  round  the  upper  edge  of  each  whorl ;  these  are 


CONCHOLOGY.  107 

said  to  be  coronated  (crowned,  fig.  84,  a)  ;  and  different  species  are 
referred  to  different  sorts  of  crowns: — M.  papalis  (a)  has  coronated 
whorls;  but  M.  episcopalis  (6)  has  the  edge  of  the  whorl  entire. 
Voluta  (Fig.  85,)  is  the  most  costly  genus  of  shells ;  some  of  the 
species  are  very  rare  and  handsome ;  it  has  an  ample  oblong  aper- 
ture, notched  at  the  base,  and  plaits  upon  the  columella:  the  spire 
is  conical;  sometimes  coronated  with  large  spines  or  tubercles. 
As  the  Harp-shell  resembles  a  musical-instrument,  so  the  Voluta 
Musica,  or  Music-shell  (Fig.  85,)  presents  us  with  notes  set  in 
score  upon  its  surface.  Cymba,  the  Boat  (Fig.  86,)  and  Melo, 
the  Melon  (Fig.  87,)  are  two  genera  whose  species  are  remarkable 
for  the  size  of  the  aperture,  and  nearly  concealed  spire;  the  colu- 
mella is  strongly  plaited  in  both.  The  two  genera  differ  in  the 
form  of  the  apex,  or  that  part  of  the  spire  which  was  included  in 
the  egg,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  pullus;  in  Cymba,  it  is  irre- 
gular (Fig.  86,  a) ;  in  Melo,  it  is  a  regular  obtuse  spire  (Fig.  87,  a.) 
Cymba  is,  also,  a  good  example  of  an  enamel-like  glaze,  that  is  de- 
posited over  the  shells  of  such  Molluscous  animals  as  have  large 
mantles. 

85  86  87 


Ovula,  or  the  Egg  (Fig.  88,  a,)  is  a  convoluted  shell,  with  a 
narrow,  longitudinal  aperture,  a  very  thin  inner  lip,  and  an  invo- 
lute (incurved,)  thickened  outer  lip,  sometimes  crenulated  (see  the 
figure,)  but  always  without  teeth,  and  its  extremities  often  pro- 
duced into  long  canals  (Fig.  88,  6.)  Cypraca,  the  Cowrie  (Fig.  89,) 
is  a  genus  containing  a  considerable  number  of  handsome  polished 
shells ;  it  differs  from  Ovula  in  having  many  conspicuous  teeth,  or 
plaits,  upon  both  the  lips  of  the  longitudinal  aperture,  the  extremi- 
ties of  which  are  always  truncated  and  turned  up.  When  young, 
the  shells  of  this  genus  have,  generally,  sharp  lips  without  teeth, 
and  an  exposed  spire;  as  they  grow  older,  the  outer  lip  is  incurved 


108  CONCHOLOGY. 

and  becomes  toothed,  as  does  also  the  columellar  lip.  Whenever  the 
animal  finds  it  necessary  to  increase  his  shell,  he  begins  by  dissolv- 
ing, or  absorbing  the  outer  coat,  or  glaze  (l>eing  internal  shells, 
they  have  no  epidermis) ;  he  then  forms  a  new  whorl,  con- 
cealing the  part  he  has  ihinncd;  thus  preserving  a  very 
light  internal  spire,  and  producing  a  case  sufficiently  strong 
for  his  support.  The  mantle  of  the  animal  is  formed  of 
two  lobes,  that  meet  in  a  line  upon  the  back  of  the  shell. 
Oliva,  or  the  Olive  (Fig.  90,)  is  an  oval  internal  shell, 
with  a  more  or  less  produced  spire;  the  aperture  is  lon- 
gitudinal, with  a  sinus  at  its  base,  and  a  narrow  canal  continued 
from  its  upper  angle,  around  the  sutures  of  the  whorls  of  the  spire. 
Conus,  a  Cone  (Fig.  91,)  is  the  first  genus  of  shells  in 
point  of  pecuniary  value;  and,  certainly  very  handsome. 
The  form  is  a  reversed  cone,  or  something  approaching 
it, — the  apex  of  the  spire  being  the  centre  of  the  base  of 
the  cone ;  the  aperture  is  narrow,  with  parallel  sides,  and 
a  deep  sinus  at  its  upper  part:  the  animal  has  a  small  horny 
operculum,  and  many  species  have  a  strong  rough  epidermis. 

Here  we  end  our  selection  of  genera  from  that  group  of  shells, 
whose  animals,  having  a  head  with  tentaculae  and  eyes,  bear  a 
great  resemblance  to  the  Slug.  The  species  comprised  in  these 
genera  are  very  numerous;  many  of  them  are  beautiful;  others 
are  remarkable  for  their  grotesque  forms,  or  peculiar  habits;  and 
a  few  for  their  great  size. 

The  CEPHALOPODOUS  MOLLUSCA  will  next  engage  our  atten- 
tion :  they  are  divided  into  two  sections ;  the  first  alone  comes  within 
our  province,  for  the  second  contains  only  various  tribes  of  Cuttle- 
fish that  have  internal  cartilages,  or  bones,  but  no  shells.  The 
shells  of  the  animals  of  the  first  section  are  all 
chambered ;  that  is,  have  a  large  portion  of  the 
interior  divided  into  cells  by  septa;  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  them  are  either  Fossil  (or 
petrified)  shells,  or  very  minute.  We  shall  con- 
fine our  remarks  to  two  recent  genera: — Spirula 
and  Nautilus.  The  first  (Fig.  92)  is  a  regular 
discoid  volute,  whose  whorls  do  not  touch  each 
other;  the  septa  are  concave  on  the  side  towards 
the  aperture,  and  penetrated  by  a  tube,  called 
the  siphuncle,  which  is  placed  close  to  the 
inner  edge  of  the  aperture,  or  back  of  each  whorl.  There  is  but 
one  species  known  (S.  Peronii)  :  it  has  a  thin  epidermis;  the 


COXCHOLOGY. 


109 


septa  are  brilliant  pearl ;  and  the  apex  is  surmounted  with  a  globose 
pullus.  The  animal  (Fig.  92,  a)  is  much  larger  than  the  shell, 
which  it  embraces  by  two  lobes  of  the  mantle;  the  chambers 
serve  as  air-vessels  to  keep  the  animal  buoyant.  The  Nautilus 
(Fig.  93)  has  a  more  or  less  ventricose,  discoid 
shell:  the  whorls  are  internal,  and  there  is  no 
proper  spire ;  for  the  apex  is  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  columella,  or  axis,  around  which  the 
whorls  curve,  embracing  each  other  in  succes- 
sion, and  thus  forming  a  disk,  whose  two  sides 
are  alike.  The  septa  are  perforated  in  their 
centres  by  a  siphuncle,  in  part  membranous, 
and  in  part  shelly;  the  edges  of  the  septa  are 
entire,  not  sinuated,  or  crisped,  as  in  the  fossil 
genus,  called  Ammonites.  The  animal  is  not 
well-known;  but  has  been  described  as  a  kind  of  Cuttle-fish,  that 
swims  upon  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  using  its  arms  as  oars,  or  sails. 
The  last  order  we  have  to  treat  of,  is  the  HETEROPODOUSMOL- 
LUSCA.  Hitherto,  only  one  genus  of 
shells,  Carinaria,  has  been  placed  in 
it;  but  such  is  the  resemblance  that 
Argonauta,  or  the  Paper  Sailor  (Fig. 
94,  a,)  bears  to  Carinaria  (Fig.  95, &,) 
that  we  shall  consider  it  under  the 
same  order.  The  Argonauta  is  a 
thin  brittle  shell;  it  is  discoid,  approaching  to  semi-circular;  its 
sides  similar;  the  margin  flat,  with  a  row  of  teeth  on  each  edge 
of  it ;  the  aperture  is  very  large,  oblong,  trun- 
cate at  the  front  to  correspond  with  the  margin, 
and  receiving,  at  its  opposite  end,  or  back,  the 
involved  irregular  apex.  The  animal  is  un- 
known; but  Ocythoe  (Fig.  94,  &,)  a  kind  of 
Cuttle-fish  with  eight  arms,  of  which  two  have 
broad  membranous  expansions  at  their  ends, 
takes  possession  of  the  shell  as  a  protection 
for  its  spawn,  over  which  it  broods ;  and  has, 
for  ages,  been  described  as  the  fabricator  of 
the  shell.  From  very  ancient  times  we  have 
had  lively  descriptions  of  the  little  prototype  of  the  ship  Argo, 
dexterously  spreading  his  sails,  and  plying  his  oars,  as  he  floats, 
in  tranquil  enjoyment,  upon  the  bosom  of  his  native  element, 
beneath  a  serene  sky ;  and  ready,  upon  the  approach  of  danger, 


110  CONCHOLOGY. 

to  sink  deep  into  an  unfathomable  ocean.  Such  a  description 
may  possibly  apply  to  the  Ocythoe;  but  we  very  much  doubt 
whether  it  has  ever  been  seen  with  any  part  voluntarily  placed 
above  the  surface  of  the  water:  the  real  animal,  as  we  before 
observed,  is,  as  yet,  unknown  in  England.  The  Carinaria,  or 
Glassy  Nautilus  (Fig.  95,  a,  6,)  is  a  transparent,  conical  shell,  witli 
flattened  sides ;  near  the  summit  is  formed  a  small  discoid  volution, 
containing  the  apex;  the  oblong  aperture  occupies  the  base.  One 
species,  Cariouia  vitrea  (6,)  is  extremely  rare;  for  which  reason, 
joined  to  its  beauty,  and  the  important  rank  it  holds  in  the  system, 
it  is  of  high  price,  and  is  but  seldom  offered  for  sale.  A  serrated 
keel  rises  up  its  front,  and  its  sides  are  decorated  with  ribs  parallel 
to  the  base. 

We  shall  close  our  detail  of  the  genera  of  shells,  by  mentioning 
Serpula  (Fig.  95,  c,)  a  common  kind  of  worm -shell ;  it  is  formed 
by  an  animal,  whose  body  is  long;  composed  of  joints;  furnished 
on  each  side  with  tubercles  supporting  bristles,  that  serve  as  feet; 
and  breathing  by  means  of  feathered  branchiae,  of  a  fan  shape, 
placed  round  the  mouth.  This  shell  belongs  to  the  class  entitled 
ANNELIDES;  of  which,  with  two  or  three  other  analogous  genera, 
it  forms  the  last  family,  and  is  placed  immediately  before  the 

ClRRIPEDES. 

Shells  verify,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  the  observation  so  gene- 
rally made,  while  regarding  the  arrangement  of  animated  Nature 
upon  the  surface  of  the  globe:  they  are  found  to  be  more  nume- 
rous, larger,  higher  and  more  variously  coloured,  formed  of  more 
parts,  and  bounded  by  less  simple  lines,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
tropics  than  near  the  poles,  especially  the  north.  Some  genera 
are  to  be  found  in  every  climate;  others  only  in  the  warmer 
regions.  Thus  we  find  some  small  species  of  Balanus  and  Anatifer 
upon  the  British  coast,  attached  to  rocks  and  sea-weeds;  while 
larger  species,  that  have,  unfortunately,  fixed  themselves  to  the 
bottoms  of  ships,  during  their  stay  upon  the  coasts  of  Africa,  or 
the  West  Indies,  are  killed  by  a  change  of  climate,  when  the 
ships  arrive  in  the  British  channel.  The  Cyclades  of  the  Thames, 
and  North-American  lakes,  are  small,  fragile  shells;  while  those 
of  China,  and  the  interior  of  India,  are  large  and  heavy.  T^he 
Watering-pot  of  Java,  and  Clavagella  of  Port  Jackson,  have  no- 
thing resembling  them  in  colder  climates:  their  forms  are  very 
remarkable.  The  greater  number  of  species  of  the  genera,  Pholati, 
Solen,  Mya,  Unio,  Anomia,  and  some  other  CONCHIFERA,  are  pe- 
culiar to  cold  climates.  Pandora,  Pinna,  Spondylus,  Chama,  &c. 


CONCHOLOGY.  1 1 1 

are  most  numerous  in  temperate  regions ;  the  Spondyli  and  Chamae 
of  the  Torrid  Zone  are,  however,  remarkable  for  their  splendid 
colours.  Trigonia  is  peculiar  to  Australia.  Tridacna  and  Placuna 
are  only  to  be  met  with  in  the  Indian  Seas. 

Among  the  UNIVALVES  we  may  notice  the  genera  of  small 
shells,  Clausilia  and  Limnea,  as  being  confined  to  temperate,  cr  cold 
climates ;  and  Hyalea,  Anostoma,  Achatina,  Auricula,  Ampullaria, 
Janthina,  Pteroceras,  Cassis,  Monoceras,  Harpa,  Dolium,  Oliva, 
Conus,  Argonauta,  and  Carinaria,  among  those  that  only  live  in  the 
warmer  latitudes.  The  Nautilus,  also,  with  its  chambered  shell, 
is  confined  to  the  tropical  seas,  where  the  dead  shells  float  in  large 
flocks  :  naturalists  consider  them  to  be  pelagian  shells,  or  living 
only  in  deep  water.  The  only  shells  at  all  similar  in  our  climate, 
are  minute  internal  appendages  of  CEPHALOPODOUS  MOLLUSCA, 
very  various  in  form,  and  found  among  sand  upon  the  sea-shore, 
wherever  shells  and  sea-weeds  abound.  Many  of  the  Volutae 
are  most  abundant  on  the  shores  of  the  South-Sea  Islands,  and 
rarely  found  elsewhere.  Most  of  the  other  genera  have  their 
species  widely  dispersed;  the  showy  and  large  ones  swarm  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  tropics ;  among  rocks  and  coral  reefs ;  in  the 
sea ;  in  rivers  and  lakes ;  or  in  moist  situations,  on  land. 

Among  our  British  shells,  the  handsomest  are  Pecten  opercu- 
laris  (Fig.  8,)  so  commonly  used  for  pincushions,  &c.  and  Pecten 
maximus,  or  the  Common  Scallop ;  they  may  be  reckoned  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  rule,  as  they  are  among  the  largest  and 
gayest  of  the  genus:  they  abound  on  the  southern  shores.  The 
kind  of  Mussel  that  produces  British  Pearls  (Unio  margaritifera) 
is  found  in  the  rivers  of  Wales  and  Scotland:  its  pearls  are 
nearly  equal  to  Oriental  ones,  and  tempted  Caesar  to  repeat  his 
visit  to  England. 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  situations  in  which  shells-  may 
be  found,  we  add  a  list  of  those  we  have  figured,  with  their 
localities: — 

1.  Balaiius  Tintinnahulnm — Upon  ships,  and  among  corals,  in  warm  latitudes. 

2.  Anatifer  lads — Attached  to  rocks  or  floating  bodies,  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

3.  TuKcinelln  Bal^ru.n  j       ^  ^  ^  of  w  .Q 

4.  Coronula  Balienuris         ) 

5.  and  6.  Unio  ovalis — Rivers  in  Europe;  as  the  New  River. 

7.  Venus  Gallina—Se&,  England  and  Ireland. 

8.  Pecten  operculari* — Distant  from  the  shore,  in  Kent  and  Sussex. 

9.  Oitrea  edulls — Muddy  banks,  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

10.  Mytilus  edulis— Stony  shore,  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

11 .  Mi/a  trunca'a— Sandy  shore,  on  the  co:ist  of  Kent. 

12.  Venus  Gallwa—Sea,  England  and  Ireland. 

10 


112  CONCHOLOGY. 

13.  Cyclaa  rivicola — The  Thume •>,  above  Westminster-bridge. 

14.  Aspergillum  Javanum — Sand,  on  the  const  of  Java. 

15.  Clavagella  australis — Sandy  shore,  at  I'ort  Jackson. 

16.  Gastrochana  cuneiforntis — In  coruls,  Isle  of  France. 

17.  Teredo  navalis—la  piles,  on  the  coast  of  Kent. 

18.  Pholas  Dactylua — Chalk  rocks,  at  Margate. 

19.  Solen  marginatus — Sand,  on  the  coast  of  Scotland. 

20.  Mya  truncata—Simd,  on  the  English  coast. 

21.  Mactra  Stultorum — English  coast. 

22.  Corbula  nucleus — Among  sea-weeds,  at  Tenby. 

23.  Pandora  rostrata — Coast  of  Normandy. 

24.  Petricola  la/nellosa — Lime-stone  rocks,  in  the  Mediterranean. 
'2~).  Tellina  radiata — Sea,  round  the  West-Indian  Islands. 

26.  Venus  GaWiui—XvA,  England  and  IruUuid. 

27.  Cardium  ednlc— Sandy  shores  of  Kent. 

28.  Area  Noe—  Coral  reefs  in  the  Isle  of  Franco. 

29.  Trigonia  margaritacca—l'ort  Jackson,  New  South  Wales. 

30.  ClMina.  Lazarus — Coral  rocks,  in  the  West  Indies. 

31 .  JEtheria  tub; f era— Rivers  of  Africa. 

32.  Tridacna  Gigas— Indian  Ocean. 

33.  Pinna pectinata — Sandy  ground,  among  the  South-Sea  Islands. 

34.  Avicula  macroptera — Rocks,  in  the  South  Seas* 
3.5.  Malleus  vuigaris— Rocks,  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

36.  Sjiondylus  Gccderopus — Among  corals,  iu  the  Mediterranean. 

37.  Anomia  Epliippium — Upon  Oysters. 
36.  P lacuna  Placenta— Coast  of  China. 

39.  Terebratula  vitrea — Hanging  to  rocks,  in  the  Mediterranean. 

40.  Terebratula  dorsata—Sir&ils  of  Magellan. 

41.  Limax  cinereus — Fields  and  Gardens,  in  England. 

42.  Hyalea  tridentata — Atlantic  Ocean. 

43.  Chiton  squamosus — Rocks,  in  the  Mediterranean. 

44.  Patella  Clcalandi— Rocks,  on  the  coast  of  Ireland. 
43,  Fitssurella  Grceca — Rocks,  on  the  coast  of  Europe. 

46.  Biilta  Ainpnlla— Among  sea-weeds,  India. 

47.  a.  Helix  Horticola — Gardens,  in  England. 

47.  b.  Helix  Porto  b'ttHctincc — Land,  in  1'orto  Sancto. 

48.  Testacella  A/aw«-ci— Tunerilli:  :  feeds  upon  earth-worms. 

49.  Anoitoma  rin-f,-,,*— Woods,  in  India. 

50.  Clausilia  Mactucartwi*— Woods,  in  Hungary. 

51.  Ar/tntina  Zebra— L,a.nil,  in  Jamaica. 

52.  Auricula  Midce— Land,  in  the  Molucca  Islands. 

53.  Limnea  Peregfa— -Ponds  and  ditches,  in  England. 

54.  Limnea  stagnalis—londs,  in  England. 

55.  Ainpitllaria  efusa— Rivers  of  South  America. 
5'j.a.Atnpul/aria  dit/na— Rivers  of  South  America. 

56.  Neritapcleronta— Sea-shore,  in  the  West  Indian  Islands. 

57.  Neritina  strigillata — Rivers  of  South  America. 

58.  Janthinafragilis—Floal'nis  on  the  Atlantic; 

59.  Haliotis  tuberculata—Gwrnsey,  upon  sub-marine  rocks.     The  ai 

food,  and  the  shells  to  ornament  the  outsides  of  houses. 

60.  Dentalium  entalitt — Seashore,  England. 

61.  Vermetus  lumbricalis — Amnn.^  corals.  Senegal, 
te.  Sea/aria pretiota— Seas,  about  China. 

63.  Solarium perspectivum — Indian  > 

64.  Trochus  ziziphinus— Sea-shore,  Kent. 

65.  Turbo  littoreus— Sea-shore,  England. 


CONCHOLOGY.  113 

66.  Turritella  Terebra— Southern  shores,  England. 

67.  Cerithium  asperum — Among  sea-weeds,  the  Isle  of  France. 

68.  Pleurotoma  Babylonia— Sea,  among  the  Molucca  Isles. 

69.  Turbinella  Pyrum— Shores  of  the  Indian  Seas. 

70.  Pyrula  reticulata— Shores  of  the  Molucca  Isles. 

71 .  Ranella  crumena — Indian  Seas. 

72.  Murex  ramosus — South  Seas. 

73.  Triton  variegatus — South  Seas. 

74.  Pteroceras  chiragra — Indian  Seas. 

75.  Strombus  Gigas — Shores  of  the  West-Indian  Islands. 

76.  Cassis  flammea— Indian  Ocean. 

77.  Purpura  Lapillus — Rocks,  upon  the  shores  of  England. 

78.  Monoceras  imbricatum — Straits  of  Magellan. 

79.  Harpaventricosa — Seas  of  China. 

80.  Dolium  maculatum — Indian  Ocean. 

81.  Buccinum  undatum — Round  the  English  coast. 

82.  Terebra  maculata — South  Seas. 

83.  Colitmbella  Mercatoria — Shores  of  Africa. 
84  a.  Mitra  Papalis— Indian  Ocean. 

84 b.  Mitra  Episcopalis— Indian  Ocean.. 

85.  Valuta  Musica — Shores  of  the  West-Indian  Islands. 

86.  Cymba  Cymbium — Western  shores  of  Africa.    The  animal  is  eaten  by  the  negroes. 

87.  Melo  umbilicatus— Persian  Gulf. 
88  a.  Ooula  Ovum — South  Seas. 

886.  Ovula  Volvo—  Caribbee  Islands. 

89.  Cyprcea  Mappa — Indian  Ocean. 

90.  Oliva  ispidula — Indian  Ocean. 

91 .  Conug  fustigatua — Coast  of  Madeira. 

92.  Spirula  Peronii— South  Seas. 

93.  Nautilus  Pompiliits— Floating  on  the  Atlantic,  between  the  Tropics. 

94.  Argonauta  Argo — Mediterranean  Sea. 
95 a.  Carinariafragilis— Atlantic  Ocean. 
956.  Carinaria  vitrea — South  Seas. 

96.    Serpula  vermicularis,  and  S,  triquetra — English  shores,  upon  stones  and  shells. 

To  procure  shetts  in  their  native  situations  is  by  no  means 
difficult:  they  may  be  picked  up  in  hedges,  and  on  banks;  drawn 
out  of  ponds  and  rivers,  along  with  weeds;  collected  on  the 
sea-shore,  or  among  rocks;  or  they  may  be  found  among  the 
refuse,  irt  fishermen's  nets.  To  obtain  an  extensive  collection  in 
this  way,  would,  however,  require  much  time  and  travelling,  or 
the  kind  aid  of  many  friends;  enough,  however,  to  illustrate  the 
classes,  orders,  and  many  of  the  families,  may  be  thus  easily 
assembled,  and  afford  much  practical  instruction.  We  recommend 
such  a  commencement  before  recourse  be  had  to  the  more  usual 
mode  of  obtaining  a  collection ;  namely,  that  of  purchase.  If  tho 
latter  means  be  resorted  to,  the  buyer  should  be  satisfied  that 
each  shell  is  perfect  and  full  grown,  and,  if  only  one  of  the  kind  lie 
selected,  well-coloured,  and  as  much  in  its  natural  state  as  a 
freedom  from  foreign  matters  will  permit:  all  degrees  of  artificial 


114 


CONCKOLOGY. 


polish,  or  form,  should  be  considered  as  blemishes;  except  in 
articles  of  ornament.  The  size  should  be  suited,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  to  that  of  the  purchaser's  cabinet.  It  will  be  found  of 
advantage  to  the  student,  to  endeavour  to  fill  up  her  series  of 
families,  or  genera,  before  she  is  anxious  about  particular  species; 
unless  she  would  confine  her  collection  to  some  one  tribe,  which, 
after  she  has  obtained  a  little  general  information,  is  a  good 
practice.  A  collection  is  best  kept  in  small  trays,  in  shallow 
drawers  of  equal  depth;  and  such  specimens  as  are  too  large  for 
the  drawers,  will  form  a  handsome  article  of  furniture  arranged  in 
a  glass  case.  Our  reason  for  recommending  drawers  of  an  equal 
depth,  is,  that  a  systematic  arrangement  may  be  followed,  which 
would  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  any  collection,  and  would  be 
entirely  destroyed  by  having  regard  to  every  variation  of  size.  No 
other  care  will  be  requisite,  than  to  exclude  the  dust,  or,  occa- 
sionally, wash  the  specimens  tenderly  with  soap  and  water. 

However  dull  Conchology  may  appear  on  the  first  glance  at  its 
scientific  detail,  we  bog  to  assure  our  fair  readers,  that  if  they 
will  employ  a  very  brief  portion  of  their  time  in  its  study,  they 
will  find  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  engaging  branches  of  natural 
history.  Many  fleeting  gratifications  are  daily  purchased  at  an 
immense  cost;  while  a  small  annual  expenditure  will  obtain  a 
splendid  and  interesting  series  of  shells,  from  which,  innocent  and 
increasing  pleasures  may  be  derived  for  years. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Turn  on  the  prudent  Ant  thy  heedless  eyes  ; 
Observe  her  labours,  sluggard,  and  be  wise. 

NIVERSALLY  distributed,  or  at  least,  more 
so  than  any  other  part  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, insects  are  by  far  the  most  numerous 
of  all  its  productions.  They  are  found  in 
the  smallest  islands;  and  in  tropical  climes 
abound  to  an  astonishing  degree:  in  the  colder 
regions  they  are  less  numerous.  There  is  no 
branch  of  natural  history  more  within  the  reach  of  our  readers, 
than  the  study  and  investigation  of  these  "  little  wonders."  This 
department  of  science  is  termed  Entomology,  and  is  derived  from 
two  Greek  words,  signifying  an  insect  and  a  discourse.  Insects 
are  so  called,  because  they  are  divided  into  numerous  segments, 
and  not,  as  is  generally  supposed,  from  their  being  separated 
into  two  parts,  which  are  merely  attached  to  each  other  by  a 
slender  thread.  They  are  further  distinguished  from  other  animals, 
by  being  invariably  furnished  with  six  feet,  and  a  head  distinct 
from  their  body ;  and,  also,  by  breathing  through  pores  situated 
along  the  abdominal  segments,  which  conduct  to  the  tracheae, 
or  wind-pipe,  for  respiration.  The  head  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
jointed  horns,  called  antennae,  which  vary  in  the  different  families, 
and  frequently  afford  generic  characters.  The  changes  through 
which  the  greater  number  of  insects  pass,  are  from  the  egg  to  the 
10* 


116  ENTOMOLOGY. 

larva,  or  caterpillar ;  from  the  larva  to  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis ;  and 
from  the  pupa  to  the  imago,  or  perfect  state.  There  are,  however, 
exceptions, — some  insects  being  viviparous;  but  the  number  of 
these  is  small. 

PARTS  OF  INSECTS. 

An  insect  may  be  divided  into  three  primary  parts,  or  sections: 
namely, — caput,  the  head ;  truncus,  the  trunk ;  and  abdomen,  the 
abdomen. 

Caput  (the  head)  is  the  anterior  section  of  the  body,  and  dis- 
tinguishable in  most  insects;  it  contains  the  organs  of  sensation. 
(Fig.  1,  represents  the  head  of  the  common  Cockchafer.) 

Truncus  (the  trunk,  fig.  2,)  is  the  intermediate,  or  second 
section  of  the  body,  and  includes  the  organs  of  motion. 

Abdomen  (the  abdomen,  fig.  3,)  is  the  last,  or  posterior  section 
of  the  body,  and  contains  the  organ  of  respiration,  &c. 
i 


Having  thus  detailed  the  three  primary  sections  of  an  insect, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  enumerate  such  parts  of  their  organization, 
as  will  enable  the  reader  to  proceed  in  their  investigation,  unin- 
cumbered  with  technical  phrases,  or,  at  least,  abridged  so  much 
as  the  subject  will  allow. 

The  head  of  insects,  as  far  as  is  yet  known,  contains  the 
organs  of  sense: — sight,  by  eyes  generally  compound  and  fixed; 
smell,  probably,  by  the  antennae  (horns):  taste,  by  mandibles  and 
maxillae  (an  upper  and  lower  lip)  ;  hearing,  uncertain;  and  feeling, 
by  palpi  (feelers,)  four  or  six  in  number, — two  labial,  and  two  or 
four  maxillary.  The  eyes,  antennae,  and  the  mouth,  are  contained 
in  the  head. 

With  respect  to  the  mouth  (os,)  insects  have  been  divided  into 
two  great  sections,  or  sub-classes:  the  one,  named  MANDIBULATA, 
— being  furnished  with  mandible  and  maxillae,  or  perfect  mouth, 
as  in  beetles,  &c.  (Fig.  14,  page  118,)  by  which  they  separate  and 
masticate  their  food;  the  other,  HAUSTELLATA,  or  those  which 
take  their  food  by  suction, — having  such  trophi  (or  parts  of  the 
mouth,)  as  will  penetrate  and  absord  the  juice  of  either  animal  or 
vegetable  subjects. 


ENTOMOLOGY.  117 

The  eyes  (oculi)  of  insects,  in  general,  are  of  two  kinds,  simple 
or  compound,  and  have  the  appearance  of  two  crescents,  or  im- 
moveable  caps,  composing  the  greatest  part  of  the  head,  and 
containing  an  infinite  number  of  little  hexagonal  protuberances, 
more  or  less  convex,  and  placed,  with  the  utmost 
regularity  and  exactness,  in  lines  crossing  each 
other,  and  resembling  net-work  (See  Fig.  4,  which 
is  a  small  portion  of  an  eye,  highly  magnified.) 
The  number  of  lenses  in  an  eye  vary  in  different 
insects.  Hooke  computed  those  in  the  eye  of  the  Tabanus,  or 
Horse-fly,  to  amount  to  nearly  7,000 ;  Leewenhock  found  in  that 
of  the  Libellula,  or  Dragon-fly,  12,544;  and  17,325  have  been 
counted  in  that  of  a  Butterfly:  the  picture  of  objects,  painted 
thereon,  must  be  millions  of  times  less,  than  the  images  of  them 
pictured  on  the  human  eye. 

Besides  the  larger  eyes  which  we  have  above  described,  many 
insects  have  three  small  spherical  bodies,  placed  triangularly  on 
the  crown  of  the  head:   these,  Linnaeus,  from  his  regarding  them 
as  a  kind  of  coronet,  called  stetnmata?  (Fig.  5,  a.)  They  are  simple, 
5,r  and   made    for   viewing   large  and   distant 

objects;  the  other  eyes,  for  small  and  near 
ones.  Leewenhock  looked  through  the  eye 
of  a  Dragon-fly  (with  the  help  of  a  mi- 
croscope,) as  a  telescope,  and  viewed  the 
steeple  of  a  church,  which  was  299  feet  high, 
and  750  feet  distant:  he  could  plainly  see 
the  steeple,  though  not  apparently  larger 
than  the  point  of  a  fine  needle.  He  also  viewed  a  house ;  and 
could  discern  the  front,  distinguish  the  doors  and  windows,  and 
perceive  whether  they  were  open  or  shut. 

The  antennae,  or  horns,  are  two  articulated  moveable  processes, 
placed  in  the  head;  they  are  subject  to  great  variety,  and  were 
the  parts  from  which  Linnaeus  formed  his  genera.  The  principal 
modifications  may  be  referred  to  the  following  definitions,  which  are 
subject  to  a  further  variety  of  forms,  in  respect  to  the  comparative 
length  of  the  joints,  their  attachment,  termination,  &c.  which  the 
improved  state  of  science  has  justly  brought  in  view,  and  are,  in 
a  great  measure,  preferable  to  the  more  obscure  parts  of  the 
mouth,  which  will  be  attended,  in  generic  characters,  with  difficulty 
to  the  young  student,  but  will  always  be  of  importance  to  the 
naturalist,  as  being,  with  other  characters,  the  basis  of  a  natural 
system.  The  principal  forms  are  as  follow: — They  are  setaceous, 


118 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


when  they  gradually  taper  towards  their  extremity  (Fig.  6) :  cla- 
vated,  when  they  grow  gradually  thicker  from  their  base  (Fig.  7): 
filiform,  when  of  an  equal  thickness  throughout  the  whole  of  their 
length  (Fig.  8):  moniliform,  when  formed  of  a  series  of  knots 
resembling  a  string  of  beads  (Fig.  9):  capitate,  when  they  ter- 
minate in  a  knob-  (Fig.  10) :  fissile,  when  the  knob  is  divided, 
longitudinally,  into  lamina?,  or  plates  (Fig.  11):  perfoliate, — having 
the  knob  divided  horizontally  (Fig.  12) :  j>ectinate, — having  a  lon- 
gitudinal series  of  hairs,  or  processes,  projecting  from  them  in  the 
form  of  a  comb  (Fig.  13.) 


13 

I 


Authors  do  not  seem  to  agree  as  to  the  use  of  the  antennas ; 
but  we  have  every  reason  to  believe,  that,  in  most  cases,  they 
contain  the  organs  of  smell.  For  some  curious  experiments  on 
this  subject,  see  Mr.  Samouelle's  Entomologist's  Useful  Compen- 
dium; pages  22  to  27. 

The  mouth  of  insects  of  the  first  sub-class,  MANDIBULATA, 
is  perfect,  being  furnished  with  mandibles,  &c.  (Fig.  14.)  There 
are  seven  principal  parts  of  the  mouth  in 
this  section.  Labrum,  the  upper  lip,  is  a 
transverse,  soft,  moveable  piece,  of  a  coria- 
ceous, or  membranaceous  nature,  which  is 
known  from  its  situation  at  the  anterior  or 
upper  part  of  the  mouth.  Fabricius  has, 
in  some  instances,  confounded  this  with 
the  clypeus,  or  shield  of  the  head;  but 
these  two  parts  may  be  distinguished  by 
one  invariable  character:  the  clypeus  is  fixed,  and  forms  a  portion 
of  the  head;  the  upper  lip  is  moveable,  and  is  placed  more  for- 
ward (Fig.  14,  h.)  Labium,  or  lower  lip,  the  piece  which  termi- 
nates the  mouth  beneath,  is  subject  to  a  variety  of  forms:  it  is  often 
bifid  (cleft,  or  divided,)  and  has  the  posterior  pair  of  feelers  placed  at 
the  base  (Fig.  15,  a,  the  labial  palpi;  e,  tho  labium.)  Mandibulae 
(mandibles,)  are  two  hard  pieces,  in  substance  resembling  horn, 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


119 


placed  on  each  side  of  the  mouth,  below  the  upper  lip.  These  have 
a  lateral,  or  side  motion,  while  the  upper  and  lower  lip  move  up  and 
down,  as  in  other  animals  (Fig.  14,  d.)  They 
differ  from  the  maxillae,  by  not  having  any 
palpi,  or  feelers,  attached  to  them.  In  rapa- 
cious insects  they  are  longer  than  in  those 
which  perforate  wood;  and  the  latter,  again, 
have  stronger  mandibles  than  insects  which 
feed  only  on  herbage,  or  the  leaves  of  plants. 
Maxillae  are  two  small  pieces,  generally  mem- 
branaceous,  and  in  figure  different  from  the  mandibles.  These 
are  not  uncommonly  indented  at  the  extremity,  and  nearly  all 
ciliated  at  the  inner  edge  (as  at  Fig.  16,  a.)  They 
are  placed  under  the  mandible,  and  above  the  lower 
lip ;  their  motion  is  lateral,  and  they  are  generally 
furnished  with  palpi.  (Fig.  16,  6,c .)  Palpi  (feelers) 
are  small  moveable  appendages  placed  on  each  side 
of  the  mouth.  In  some  instances  they  resemble 
the  antennae.  The  most  usual  number  is  four,  but 
some  few  families  of  insects  are  furnished  with  six;  they  are 
termed  labial  (Fig.  15,  a)  and  maxillary  (Fig.  16,  b,  c.) 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  mouth,  or,  at 
least,  such  as  are  considered  in  the  generic  characters;  the  modi- 
fications of  which  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  manners  and  food 
of  insects.  It  must  be  remembered,  that  the  above  characters 
properly  belong  to  the  MANDIBULATA.  We  shall  now  describe 
those  of  the  second  sub-class : — HAUSTELLATA,  or  Sucking  Insect. 
Mr.  Kirby,  in  his  valuable  Introduction  to  Entomology,  has  duly 
considered  these  parts,  and  has  made  some  few  deviations  from 
the  language  of  Linnaeus ;  but  as  they  will,  no  doubt,  be  adopted 
by  future  entomologists,  we  shall  briefly  give  them ;  together 
with  their  synonyms,  in  reference  to  other  entomological  works. 

Promusci,  or  rostrum,  of  Linnaeus  and  other  authors,  is  the 
part  which  forms  the  mouth  in  most  of  the  Heinipterous  insects. 
This  instrument  is  moveable,  articulated,  and  bent  under  die 
breast.  It  is  hollow  within,  and  contains,  as  in  a  sheath,  five 
very  fine  and  delicate  pieces,  analogous  to  the 
labiuni,  mandible,  and  maxilhv.  These  unite  and 
form  a  suctorious  tube,  which  is  introduced  into 
the  body  of  the  animal,  or  substance  of  the  plant, 
from  which  the  insect  draws  nourishment  (Fig.  17,  a,  head  of 
Penlatoraa;  6,  antennas;  c,  rostrum.) 


120 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Proboscis  is  a  term  employed  by  Linnaeus,  and  adopted  by 
Fabricius  and  Latreille,  which  3Ir.  Kirby  still  retains,  to  designate 
the  sheath  that  contains  the  trophi  of  the  Dipterous 
insects;  in  many  of  which,  the  proboscis  is  terminated 
by  two  soft  fleshy  pieces,  forming  lips;  these,  from  the 
delicacy  of  their  ligaments,  must  possess  the  faculty  of 
suction  to  a  high  degree  (Fig.  18,  head  of  Musca  tenax;  a,  antennas; 
ft,  nasus  (nose);  c,  proboscis.) 

Antilia  (suckers)  of  Kirby,  Lingua  (tongue)  of  other  authors,  is 
an  involuted  tubular  organ,  which  constitutes  the  principal  part  of 
the  mouth  in  Lepidopterous  insects.  This  part  is  generally  filiform, 
and  is  of  moderate  length,  as  in  most  of  the  Papilionida?  ;^-or  long 
as  in  most  of  the  Sphingidse:  in  the  Arctiadae,  and  in  other  families 
of  this  order,  it  is,  apparently,  wanting,  or  much  shorter  than  in  the 
others :  in  a  state  of  rest,  this  part  is  rolled  up,  spirally, 
between  the  palpi.  It  consists  of  two  filamentous 
pieces,  which  are  extremely  convex,  concave  within, 
and  connected,  longitudinally,  by  a  suture  along  the 
middle,  above,  and  beneath.  These,  in  uniting,  form 
a  cylinder,  through  which  the  farina  of  flowers,  on 
which  the  insects  subsist,  are  drawn  up  with  facility. 
These  two  pieces  are  easily  separated  by  a  needle  (Fig.  19,  a,  the 
antenna?;  6,  palpi;  c,  the  tongue.) 

Truncus  (the  trunk)  is  the  second  principal  division  of  an 
insect.  This  portion  is  situated  between  the 
head  and  the  abdomen,  and  is  resolvable  into 
two  grand  segments ;  the  upper  segment  is  the 
thorax,  and  the  under  one,  pcctus,  or  breast: 
but  as  the  part  is  subject  to  a  variety  of  forms 
in  the  different  orders,  Mr.  Kirby  and  M.  La- 
treille have,  with  much  propriety,  modified 
the  terms,  and  further  named  those  portions ; 
which  will,  no  doubt,  be  noticed  by  future 
entomological  writers.  For  the  present,  we  shall  only  consider  this 
part  as  referred  to  in  generic  characters, — 
not  wishing  to  burden  the  young  student  with 
terms  which  will  but  seldom  lx)  quoted.  We 
shall,  therefore,  confine  ourselves  to  the  tho- 
rax, as  considered  in  the  generic  character  of 
insects;  this  will  be  understood  by  our  dia- 
grams  (Fig.  20,  /,  the  dorsum,  or  upper  part  of 
the  thorax,  and  Fig.  21,  a,  the  pectus,  or  breast,  of  Hydrous  piceus.) 


ENTOMOLOGY.  121 

The  thorax,  in  those  insects  which  have  that  part  consisting 
of  a  single  piece,  as  in  the  COLEOPTERA,  or  the  first  segment,  in 
such  as  are  of  a  compound  nature,  has  the  first  pair  of  legs  arising 
from  the  lower  surface;  and  it  is  in  this  part  that  the  muscles, 
which  move  the  head,  as  well  as  the  pair  of  legs,  are  contained. 
The  thorax,  in  different  kinds  of  insects,  varies  considerably  in 
form,  and  affords  valuable  generic  and  specific  characters.  Many 
are  armed  with  spines:  others  are  denticulated  (or  toothed,)  mar- 
ginated  (having  a  margin,)  serrated  (toothed  like  a  saw,)  &c.  The 
pectus,  or  breast,  or  the  under  part  of  the  thorax,  to  which  the  four 
posterior  feet  are  attached,  is  longitudinally  divided  at  the  anterior 
part  of  the  sternum  (or  breast  bonej  fig.  21,  a.)  The  wings  and 
elytra  (wing-cases)  are  attached  to  the  upper  part;  the  termina- 
tion contains  the  gcutellum : — these  we  shall  further  describe  (see 
Fig.  20,  6,  the  elytron  closed;  e,  the  elytron  removed,  to  show  the 
situation  of  the  wing  in  a  state  of  rest;  d,  the  head;  e,  the  palpi.) 
Sternum,  or  breast-bone,  is  that  portion  of  the  middle  part  of 
the  breast  which  is  situated  between  the  base  of  the  four  posterior 
legs  (Fig.  21,  6.)  There  are  but  few  insects  in  which  the  sternum 
is  remarkable,  either  from  its  magnitude  or  figure.  This  part  is 
most  conspicuous  in  the  Dytici  and  Hydrophili. 

Scutellum  (the  scutel,)  is  a  lobe-like  process,  situated  imme- 
diately at  the  posterior  part  of  the  thorax,  in  most  insects;  but  in 
some  few  it  appears  wanting;  in  general,  its  form  is  heart-shaped 
or  sub-triangular.  In  size,  the  scutel  varies,  more  than  in  figure ;  in 
some,  it  is  so  small  as  almost  to  escape  notice;  in  others,  it  is  very 
conspicuous;  in  several  species  of  the  HEMIPTERA,  the  scutel 
expands  over  the  back,  entirely  concealing  the  wings  and  wing- 
cases,  and  covering  the  margins  of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  20,  a.) 

Elytra  (the  wing-cases,)  are  two  in  number,  of  a  substance 
resembling  leather;  they  are  generally  moveablej  and,  in  the 
COLEOPTERA,  open  by  a  longitudinal  suture  along  the  middle  of 
the  back.  In  some  few  of  this  order,  the  elytra  are  united;  the 
upper  surface  is  more  or  less  convex,  and  the  lower 
surface  correspondently  concave.  The  texture  in  several 
of  the  Curculionidsfi  is  so  hard,  that  they  are  pierced 
with  difficulty ;  in  others,  as  in  Meloe,  they  are  flexible. 
The  difference  in  form,  and  the  diversity  of  their  surface, 
afford  both  generic  and  specific  characters.  The  elytron 
is  fully  illustrated  by  the  diagram  (Fig.  22,  elytron  of 
the  COLEOPTERA;  a,  base;  6,  shoulder;  c,  lateral  margin;  d, 
apex;  e,  the  longitudinal  suture.) 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


Alae,  or  wings,  are  the  organs  of  flight.  These  are  either  two  or 
four;  and  in  the  LEPIDOPTERA,HYMENOPTKRA,  andDiPTERA, 
are  attached  to  the  lateral  part,  or  side  of  the 
breast,  close  to  the  lower  margin  of  the  thorax. 
_^  Than  inM.-cts  which  are  furnished  with  only  one 
pair  of  wings,  have,  in  these  organs,  both  an  uni- 
form appearance  and  si/.*-.  Such  as  have  two 
pairs,  most  frequently  differ;  the  first  bring 
larger  than  those  behind  (Fig.  23,  a,  the  wings  separated  ;  6,  joined, 
as  in  flight.) 

Halteres,  or  poisers,  are  two  short,  moveable,  clavated  fila- 
ments, placed  one  contiguous  to  the  origin  of 
each  wing.  They  seldom  exceed  one-tenth  of 
the  length  of  the  wing,  though  in  a  few  genera 
they  are  longer.  The  capital,  or  head,  in  which 
the  filament  terminates,  is  subject  to  a  little 
variation;  in  some  insects  its  situation  is  di- 
rectly under  a  small,  arched,  filmy  scale,  but 
in  several  families  it  is  apparently  wanting. 
This  organ  is  peculiar  to  the  Dipterous  order  of  insects  (Fig.  24, 
a,  wing;  b  b,  halteres.) 

Pedes,  the  legs,  in  all  insects,  amount  to  six,  and  never  exceed 
that  number;  and  the  same  is  observable  of  the  true  feet  in  the 
larvae  of  insects:  the  latter  have  spurious  feet  to  a  greater  amount, 
but  the  true  feet  do  not  exceed  six.  From  the  different  conforma- 
tions of  the  legs,  it  is  easy  to  recognise,  even  in  the  dead  insect, 
the  mode  of  life  which  the  species  is  destined,  by  Nature,  to 
pursue. 

25  28  27  28 


The  legs  of  insects  adapted  for  running  or  walking,  are  long 
and  cylindrical;  the  thighs  of  the  leapers  are  remarkably  large 
and  thick,  with  the  shank  long,  and  frequently  arched;  by  which 
means  they  possess  great  strength  and  power  for  leaping;  as  in 
Grasshoppers  (Fig.  25.)  In  those  accustomed  to  dig  in  the  earth, 
the  legs  are  broad,  serrated  (or  toothed  like  a  saw,)  and  sharp  at  tlu- 


ENTOMOLOGY.  123 

edges ;  and  such  as  inhabit  the  water,  have  the  legs,  especially  the 
posterior  pair,  long,  flat,  and  ciliated,  or  fringed  at  the  edge  with 
hair  (Fig.  26,  hind,  or  posterior  leg,  of  Dyticus.)  The  leg  of  an 
insect  consists  of  the  following  parts: — coxa  (Fig.  27,  a,)  the  first, 
or  basal  joint;  6,  femur,  the  thigh;  e,  tibia,  the  shank;  d,  tarsus, 
the  foot;  and  e,  unguis,  the  claw.  Coxa,  a  small  joint  at  the 
base,  connects  the  thigh  to  the  body,  and  moves  in  a  correspond- 
ing cavity.  There  is  more  diversity  in  the  form  of  the  thigh  than 
the  coxa,  to  which  it  is  united.  The  articulation  of  these  two 
parts  is  internal,  and  is  produced  in  such  a  manner,  that  when 
the  animal  is  in  a  state  of  repose,  it  is  parallel  to  the  inferior 
surface  of  the  body.  The  nature  and  extent  of  the  motions  of 
the  thigh  appear  to  determine  its  form.  In  those  insects  which 
walk  much  and  fly  little,  as  in  the  Carabi,  the  thigh  has  two  little 
prominences  at  the  base,  called  trochanters,  which  appear  to  be 
intended  for  removing  the  muscles  from  the  axis  of  the  articula- 
tion. Those  which  require  strong  muscles  adapted  for  leaping, 
have  the  thigh  not  only  thick,  but  generally  elongated;  as  in 
Grasshoppers  (Fig.  25,  6.)  Tibia,  the  shankj  is  the  third  joint  of 
the  leg,  and  moves  in  an  angle,  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
thigh.  The  figure  of  this  part  depends  essentially  on  the  uses  to 
which  the  habits  of  the  insect  require  it  to  be  applied.  Tarsus 
(Fig.  27,  d,)  the  foot,  is  the  fourth  joint  of  the  leg:  it  varies  in 
form;  and  the  number  of  its  joints  is  from  one  to  five.  The 
figure  of  the  tarsi  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  insect's  mode  of  life. 
The  articulations,  in  such  as  walk  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  are 
slender;  many  of  those  which  inhabit  waters,  have  them  flat,  and 
ciliated  at  the  edges  (Fig.  26,  c.) 

The  abdomen,  or  third  principal  division,  or  posterior  part  of 
the  body,  is  connected  with  the  breast,  either  closely  or  at  a 
distance,  by  means  of  a  fillet.  The  abdomen  is  composed  of 
annular  joints,  or  segments,  the  number  of  which  varies  in  different 
insects.  The  upper  part  of  the  abdomen  is  called,  by  entomologists, 
tergum ;  the  inferior,  or  belly,  venter  (Fig.  3.)  The  total  movement 
of  the  abdomen  is  not  very  obvious,  except  in  the  StaphylinidsR 
(Fig.  28,)  Forficula,  and  the  Pediculated  body  of  the  Hymen- 
opterous  genera.  It  has  then  a  real  joint,  in  which  the  first 
annulation  is  indented  above,  and  receives  a  projecting  process 
from  the  breast,  on  which  it  moves.  The  joint  is  rendered  secure 
by  elastic  ligaments,  which  have  a  considerable  degree  of  force. 
Some  muscles,  which  arise  within  the  breast,  are  inserted  into  the 
first  ring,  and  determine  the  extent  of  its  motions.  The  partial 
11 

* 


124  ENTOMOLOGY. 

motion  of  the  ring  is  produced  by  very  simple  muscles,  consisting 
of  fibres  which  extend  from  the  anterior  edge  of  one  ring  to  the 
posterior  edge  of  that  which  immediately  precedes  it.  When  the 
dorsal  fibres  contract,  the  superior  part  of  the  abdomen  being 
shortened,  it  turns  up  towards  the  back ;  but  when  the  contraction 
takes  place  in  the  ventral,  or  lateral  fibres,  the  abdomen  is  inflected 
towards  the  belly,  or  directed  to  one  of  the  sides.  The  extent  of 
the  motion,  however,  depends  on  the  number  of  the  rings  and 
their  mode  of  junction.  In  the  COLEOPTERA,  for  example,  the 
rings  only  touch  each  other  by  their  edges,  and  the  motion  is  very 
limited  (Fig.  28;)  but  in  the  HYMENOPTERA,  they  are  so  many 
small  hoops,  which  are  encased,  one  into  another,  like  the  tubes  of 
a  telescope ;  so  that  scarcely  half,  and  sometimes  not  above  one- 
third  of  their  extent  appears  visible  externally. 
f5f  This  is  attempted  to  be  shown  by  the  irregularity 
of  the  darker  markings  in  Fig.  29,  a.  The  abdo- 
men contains  the  intestines,  the  ovary,  and  part 
of  the  organs  of  respiration ;  it  is  affixed  to  the  thorax ;  and,  in 
most  insects,  distinct  from  it,  forming  the  posterior  part  of  the 
body. 

An  appendage  of  any  kind,  terminating  the  abdomen,  is 
usually  denominated  the  tail  (cauda.)  This  appendage  varies 
in  figure,  considerably,  in  different  insects,  and  many  tribes  are 
totally  destitute  of  it.  It  is  supposed  to  be  destined  to  direct  the 
motions  of  the  insect  in  flight,  to  serve  for  its  defence,  and  for 
the  deposition  of  its  eggs.  In  some  insects  the  tail  is  simple,  and 
yet  capable  of  being  extended  and  withdrawn  at  pleasure.  In 
others,  it  is  setaceous,  or  bristle-shaped,  as  in  Rhaphidia.  Those 
termed  triseta,  have  three  bristle-shaped  appendices,  as  in  Ephe- 
mera. In  some  it  is  forked,  as  in  Podura.  When  it  terminates 
in  a  pair  of  forceps,  as  in  the  Earwig,  it  is  called  forcipata.  In 
the  last  segment  but  one  of  the  tail  of  Staphylinus,  exists  two 
so  soft  fleshy  organs,  which  secrete  an  offensive  fluid 
I^^L  (Fig.  28,  d  d);  this  appendage  is  termed  papilliferous. 
•4r  I*  In  the  Blatta,  and  others,  it  is  foliosa,  or  resembling 
a  leaf.  In  the  Panorpa  it  is  furnished  with  a  claw,  and  is  called 
telifera  (Fig.  30.) 

Aculeus,  the  sting,  is  an  instrument  with  which  insects  wound 
and  instil  a  poison ;  it  generally  proceeds  from  the  under  part  of 
the  last  ring  of  the  belly:  in  some,  it  is  sharp  and  pointed;  in 
others,  serrated  or  barbed.  It  is  used  by  many  insects,  both  as 
an  offensive  or  defensive  weapon ;  by  others,  only  to  pierce  wood, 


ENTOMOLOGY.  123 

or  the  bodies  of  animals,  in  order  to  deposit  their  eggs.  In  Wasps 
and  Bees  the  sting  is  known  to  be  retractile,  or  withdrawn  in  a 
state  of  rest.  In  some  insects  it  exists  in  the  male  only ;  and  in 
others,  Nature  has  provided  the  female  alone  with  this  instrument. 
It  is  not  frequently  met  with  in  both  sexes  of  the  same  species: 
the  greater  number  of  insects  have  no  such  organ. 

METAMORPHOSES    OF  INSECTS. 

Were  a  naturalist,  says  Mr.  Kirby,  to  announce  to  the  world 
the  discovery  of  an  animal,  which,  for  the  first  five  years  of  its 
life,  existed  }n  the  form  of  a  serpent ;  which  then,  penetrating  into 
the  earth,  and  weaving  a  shroud  of  pure  silk  of  the  finest  texture, 
contracted  itself,  within  this  covering,  into  a  body  without  external 
mouth  or  limbs,  and  resembling,  more  than  anything  else,  an 
Egyptian  mummy;  and  which,  lastly,  after  remaining  in  this 
,  state,  without  food  and  without  motion,  for  three  years  longer, 
should,  at  the  end  of  that  period,  burst  its  silken  cerements, — 
struggle  through  its  earthly  covering,  and  start  into  day  a  winged 
bird: — What,  think  you,  would  be  the  sensation  excited  by  the 
strange  piece  of  intelligence  1 — After  the  first  doubts  of  its  truth 
were  dispelled,  what  astonishment  would  succeed!  Amongst  the 
learned,  what  surmises  ! — what  investigations  !  Amongst  the 
vulgar,  what  eager  curiosity  and  amazement  !  All  would  be  in- 
terested in  the  history  of  such  an  unheard-of  phenomenon ;  even 
the  most  torpid  would  flock  to  the  sight  of  such  a  prodigy.  But, 
you  ask,  "  To  what  do  all  these  improbable  suppositions  tend  1" 
Simply  to  rouse  your  attention  to  the  metamorphoses  of  this 
insect  world, — almost  as  strange  and  surprising, — to  which  I  am 
now  about  to  direct  your  view: — miracles  which,  though  scarcely 
surpassed  in  singularity  by  all  that  poets  have  feigned,  and  though 
actually  wrought  every  day  beneath  our  eyes, — are,  because  of 
their  commonness  and  the  minuteness  of  the  objects,  unheeded 
alike  by  the  ignorant  and  the  learned.  That  Butterfly, — which 
amuses  you  with  its  aerial  excursions,  while  extracting  nectar  from 
die  tube  of  the  honeysuckle,  and  then, — the  very  image  of  fickle- 
ness,— flying  to  a  rose,  as  if  to  contrast  the  hue  of  its  wings  with 
that  of  the  flower  on  which  it  reposes, — did  not  come  into  the 
world  as  you  now  behold  it.  At  its  first  exclusion  from  the  egg, 
and  for  some  months  of  its  existence  afterwards,  it  was  a  worm- 
like  Caterpillar,  crawling  upon  sixteen  short  legs,  greedily  devour- 
ing leaves,  with  two  jaws,  and  seeing  by  means  of  twelve  eyes  so 


126  ENTOMOLOGY. 

minute  as  to  be  nearly  imperceptible  without  the  aid  of  a  micro- 
scope. You  now  view  it  furnished  with  wings  capable  of  rapid 
and  extensive  flights.  Of  its  sixteen  feet,  ten  have  disappeared, 
and  the  remaining  six  are,  in  most  respects,  wholly  unlike  those  to 
which  they  have  succeeded.  Its  jaws  have  vanished,  and  are 
replaced  by  a  curled-up  proboscis,  suited  only  for  sipping  liquid 
sweets.  The  form  of  its  head  is  entirely  changed :  two  long  horns 
project  from  its  upper  surface;  and  instead  of  twelve  invisible 
eyes,  you  behold  two,  very  large,  and  composed  of  at  least  twenty 
thousand  convex  lenses,  each  supposed  to  be  a  distinct  and  ef- 
fective eye! 

The  egg,  containing  the  insect  in  its  smallest  size,  is  round, 
oval,  or  cylindrical.  The  shells  of  some  eggs  are  hard  and  smooth: 
those  of  others  are  soft  and  flexible.  They  vary  considerably  in 
colour;  some  being  almost  every  shade  of  yellow,  green,  and 
brown;  a  few,  red;  and  others,  black.  Green  and  greenish  eggs 
are  not  unusual;  and  there  are  some  speckled  with  darker  colours, 
like  those  of  birds.  Many  are  smooth  and  highly  polished ;  others, 
fluted;  and  some  few  are  beset,  in  a  pleasing  manner,  with  raised 
dots. 

Insects  are  instructed  by  Nature  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  situa- 
tions where  their  young  ones  will  find  the  nourishment  most 
convenient  for  them.  Some  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  oak-leaf, — 
producing  there  the  red-gall;  others  choose  the  leaf  of  the  poplar, 
which  swells  into  a  red  bladder;  and  to  a  similar  cause  may  be 
assigned  the  knob  which  is  often  seen  on  the  leaf  of  the  willow. 
The  Lassiocampa  neustria  glues  its  eggs,  with  great  symmetry,  in 
rings,  round  the  smaller  twigs  of  trees:  each  of  these  bracelets,  as 
the  French  gardeners  aptly  call  them,  is  composed  of  from  two 
to  three  hundred  pyramidical  eggs  with  flattened  tops,  having 
their  axis  perpendicular  to  the  circumference  of  the  twig  to  which 
they  are  fastened,  surrounding  it  in  a  series  of  from  fifteen  to 
seventeen  close  spiral  circles,  and  having  their  interstices  filled  up 
with  a  tenacious  brown  gum,  which,  while  it  secures  them  alike 
from  the  wintry  blast  and  the  attack  of  voracious  insects,  serves 
as  a  foil  to  the  white  enamel  of  the  eggs  that  it  encompasses.  It 
is  not  easy  to  conceive  how  these  Moths  contrive  to  accomplish 
so  accurately,  with  their  tail  and  hind  feet,  an  arrangement  which 
would  require  the  most  delicate  care  from  the  hands  of  an  artist. 
Reaumur  bred  numbers  of  the  fly  from  the  egg,  and  supplied  the 
females  with  appropriate  twigs ;  but  the  Moths,  as  though  resolved 
that  imprisonment  should  not  force  from  them  the  secret  of  their 


ENTOMOLOGY.  127 

art,  laid  their  eggs  at  random,  and  made  no  attempt  to  place  them 
symmetrically. 

All  Caterpillars  are  hatched  from  the  egg ;  and,  when  they  first 
proceed  from  it,  are  small  and  feeble,  but  acquire  strength  as  they 
increase  in  size.  The  body  of  the  Caterpillar  consists  of  twelve  rings ; 
the  head  is  connected  with  the  first,  and  is  hard  and  crustaceous. 
No  Caterpillar,  of  the  Moth  or  Butterfly,  has  less  than  eight,  or  more 
than  sixteen  true  and  other  feet ;  those  which  have  more  than  sixteen, 
belong  to  some  other  order  of  insects.  The  Caterpillar,  whose  life  is 
a  continued  succession  of  changes,  before  it  attains  its  full  growth, 
often  moults,  not  merely  the  skin,  but  the  jaw,  and  all  the  exterior 
parts ,  both  scaly  and  membranaceous .  The  change  is  effected  by  the 
creature's  withdrawing  itself  from  the  outer  skin,  as  from  a  sheath, 
when  it  finds  itself  incommoded  from  being  confined  within  too 
narrow  a  compass ;  but,  to  accomplish  this,  is  the  work  of  some 
labour  and  time.  Those  Caterpillars  which  live  in  society,  and 
have  a  nest  or  habitation,  retire  there  to  change  their  skins, 
fixing  the  hooks  of  their  feet,  during  the  operation,  firmly  in  the 
web  of  their  nest.  Some  of  the  solitary  species  spin,  at  this  time, 
a  slender  web,  to  which  they  affix  themselves.  A  day  or  two 
before  the  critical  moment  approaches,  the  insect  ceases  to  eat, 
and  loses  its  usual  activity.  In  proportion  as  the  time  of  its  change 
approaches,  the  colour  of  the  Caterpillar  declines  in  vigour,  the 
skinliardens,  becomes  withered,  and  is  soon  incapable  of  receiving 
those  circulating  juices  by  which  it  was  before  nourished  and  sup- 
ported. The  insect  is  seen  at  intervals  with  its  back  elevated,  or 
with  the  body  stretched  to  the  utmost  extent;  sometimes  raising 
its  head,  moving  it  from  one  side  to  another,  and  then  letting  it  faU 
again.  As  the  change  approaches,  the  second  and  third  rings  are 
considerably  swollen.  By  great  internal  efforts  the  old  parts  are 
stretched  and  distended  as  much  as  possible:  tlirs  operation  is 
attended  with  difficulty,  as  the  new  parts  are  all  weak  and  tender ; 
but  by  repeated  exertions,  all  the  vessels  which  conveyed  nourish- 
ment to  the  exterior  skin,  are  disengaged,  and  cease  to  act;  and 
a  slit  is  made  on  the  back,  generally  beginning  at  the  second  or 
third  ring.  The  new  skin  may  now  be  just  distinguished,  on 
account  of  its  freshness  and  brightness  of  colour.  The  Caterpillar 
then  presses  the  body,  like  a  wedge,  through  this  opening ;  by  which 
means  it  is  soon  torn  down  from  the  first  to  the  fourth  ring,  which 
renders  it  large  enough  for  the  Caterpillar  to  pass  through. 

The  Caterpillar  generally  fasts  a  whole  day  after  each  moulting ; 
for  it  is  necessary  that  the  parts  should  acquire  a  certain  degree  of 
11  * 


128  ENT03IOLOGY. 

consistency  before  its  organs  can  perform  their  ordinary  functions. 
Many  perish  under  this  operation.  The  Caterpillar  always  appears 
much  larger  after  it  has  quitted  the  exuviae  than  before ;  the  body 
growing  under  the  old  skin  till  it  becomes  too  large  for  its  case; 
and  the  parts,  which  are  soft,  being  much  compressed;  but  as 
soon  as  the  old  skin  is  quitted,  the  parts  distend,  and  with  them 
the  new  skin,  which  is  yet  of  a  flexible  and  tender  texture;  so 
that  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  Caterpillar,  at  each  moulting,  is 
very  considerable.  Some  Caterpillars,  in  changing  their  skin, 
alter  very  much  in  colour  and  appearance;  sometimes  the  skin, 
from  being  smooth,  becomes  covered  with  hair,  spines,  or  tuber- 
cles ;  others,  that  are  in  one  stage  hairy,  have  the  skin  smooth  in 
the  next. 

By  the  pupa  state,  in  the  very  extensive  sense  Linneeus 
proposes,  is  signified  that  state  of  an  insect  which  succeeds  the 
larva,  without  any  regard  to  the  particular  appearance  it  assumes 
in  this  period  of  transformation.  From  so  great  a  latitude  of 
meaning,  it  includes,  therefore,  with  equal  precision,  and  no  less 
propriety,  states  of  the  most  discordant  character.  It  alike  im- 
plies the  uncouth  grub,  incased  in  its  shelly  repository,  and 
immured  in  the  earth,  sluggish  and  almost  destitute  of  motion,  or 
the  appearance  of  any  animal  function,  with  the  lively  half-winged 
Locust,  or  the  Cicada, — animals,  sporting  in  the  full  enjoyment  of 
life.  The  Bot,  imprisoned  in  its  oval  covering,  without  the  least 
external  sign  of  animation,  is  termed  a  pupa.  The  Moth,  quiescent, 
and  absent  for  months,  concealed  in  its  shelly  covering  in  the  earth, 
or  suspended  in  its  silken  envelope  to  the  branch  of  a  tree,  is  a 
pupa;  and  we  denominate  those,  also,  which  have  the  wings  only 
half  expanded,  pupae;  though,  like  the  nimble-footed  Cimex,  they 
are  perpetually  roving,  and  deriving  sustenance  from  the  blood  of 
other  animals;  and  so,  also,  the  restless  Libellula,  which  is  con- 
tinually traversing  the  watery  element,  with  the  facility  of  a  fish, 
in  search  of  its  prey.  Modern  writers  have,  therefore,  considered 
this  state  as  essential  in  the  formation  of  orders ;  and  have  even 
laid  down  certain  rules,  which,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the 
characters  of  the  perfect  insect,  are  often  of  great  use  in  ascer- 
taining the  order  to  which  any  genus  belongs.  In  our  account  of 
the  larva,  we  have  given  that  of  the  Lepidopterous  order;  and 
shall,  therefore,  describe  the  pupa  of  the  same. 

The  length  of  time  an  insect  remains  in  this  form,  varies  much 
in  different  species.  As  soon  as  the  inclosed  animal  acquires 
sufficient  strength  to  break  the  bonds  of  its  confinement,  it  makes 


ENTOMOLOGY.  129 

a  powerful  effort  to  escape.  The  opening  through  which  it  passes 
is  always  at  the  same  part  of  the  skin ;  namely, — a  little  above  the 
trunk,  between  the  wings  and  a  small  piece  which  covers  the 
head:  different  fissures  are  generally  made  in  the  same  direction. 
When  the  operation  begins,  there  seems  to  be  a  violent  agitation 
in  the  humours  contained  in  the  little  animal, — the  fluids  being 
driven  with  rapidity  through  all  vessels;  the  limbs  and  various 
parts  of  the  body  are  put  in  motion ;  and,  by  repeated  efforts,  it 
breaks  through  the  brittle  skin  that  envelopes  it.  Those  inclosed 
in  cones,  or  cases,  after  bursting  through  the  pupa-covering,  have 
another  difficulty  to  overcome,  that  of  piercing  through  the  in- 
closure,  which,  in  many  instances,  is  of  stronger  texture  than  the 
case  of  the  pupa.  For  the  accomplishment  of  this,  most  insects 
are  provided  with  a  liquor,  which  they  discharge  from  the  mouth 
upon  that  part  of  the  cone  through  which  they  intend  to  escape ; 
and  this  so  moistens  and  weakens  it,  that,  after  a  short  time,  they 
force  their  passage  through  with  tolerable  facility.  Some  insects, 
which  are  not  provided  with  this  fluid,  leave  one  end  of  their  cone 
weaker  than  the  rest,  and  close  it  only  with  a  few  threads ;  so  that 
a  slight  effort  of  the  head  enables  the  insect  to  burst  from  its 
prison. 

The  last  stage  of  the  life  of  insects  is  termed  the  imago,  or  per- 
fect state.  The  Butterfly,  or  Moth,  on  emerging  from  the  pupa,  is 
moist ;  die  abdomen  is  swollen ;  the  antennae  are  bent  down ;  and 
the  wings  crumpled,  small,  and  shapeless.  These  parts  are  gra- 
dually unfolded,  and  take  their  destined  forms.  The  elytra 
assume  their  brilliant  colours ;  the  wings  expand  to  their  proper 
size,  and  assume  their  various  markings ;  and  what  seemed,  a  few 
minutes  before,  but  an  inanimate  half-formed  mass,  is  transformed 
into  an  animal  decked  with  the  most  vivid  colours,  and  rejoicing 
in  its  new  existence.  The  operation  of  expanding  their  wings,  in 
by  far  the  greater  number  of  insects,  occupies  only  a  few  minutes ; 
in  some  Butterflies  half  an  hour,  or  an  hour;  and  some  species 
of  Sphinx  require  several  hours,  or  even  a  day,  for  this  operation. 
In  certain  Tipulae  and  the  Ephemera,  however,  this  process  is 
almost  instantaneous;  and  in  some  species  of  the  latter  genus, 
the  insects,  after  being  released  from  their  puparium,  and  making 
use  of  their  expanded  wings  for  flight,  undergo  a  slight  and 
further  metamorphosis.  They  fix  themselves  by  their  claws,  in  a 
vertical  position,  upon  some  object ;  withdraw  every,  part  of  the 
body,  and  even  the  legs  and  wings,  from  a  thin  pellicle  which 
covered  them  like  a  glove;  and  so  perfect  is  the  resemblance  of 


130  ENTOMOLOGY. 

these  exuviae  to  the  insect,  that  they  may,  at  first  sight,  be  mis- 
taken for  it. 

When  the  developement  of  the  perfect  insect  is  thus  completed, 
it  immediately  begins  to  exercise  its  new  powers  in  their  destined 
functions.  It  walks,  runs,  or  flies  in  search  of  food  or  others  of 
its  own  species;  and  so  unerring  are  its  intuitive  perceptions  of 
the  food  which  is  proper,  and  the  protection  which  it  requires, 
that  the  new-formed  being  becomes  at  once  a  free  denizen  of  the 
air;  and  is  immediately  capable  of  distinguishing,  with  more  than 
botanical  skill,  the  plants  and  their  juices  which  are  necessary  for 
its  support. 

The  duration  of  an  insect's  life  in  die  imago,  or  perfect  state,  is 
subject  to  some  variations ;  but  there  is  not,  as  in  the  larger  animals, 
a  duration  of  a  medium  period,  only  liable  to  be  shortened  by  acci- 
dent or  disease,  but  a  conditional  one, — dependent  on  the  earlier 
or  later  fulfilment  of  a  particular  function.  The  general  law  regard- 
ing this  period  among  insects,  seems  to  be,  that  a  few  days,  or,  at 
most,  a  few  weeks,  after  the  deposition  of  the  ova  the  insects 
perish.  The  period  for  effecting  this  is  longer  or  shorter,  according 
to  the  species.  Some,  as  several  Ephemerae,  live  only  a  few  hours, 
and  never  enjoy  the  enlivening  light  of  the  sun ;  appearing  after  sun- 
set, and  dropping  their  ova  on  the  surface  of  their  native  waters, 
they  perish  before  the  dawning  of  another  day.  Others,  as  Flies, 
Moths,  Butterflies,  and,  indeed,  the  greater  part  of  insects,  take  a 
few  days,  or  weeks,  'to  accomplish  the  same  purpose.  A  compara- 
tively small  number,  such  as  some  of  the  larger  COLEOPTERA, 
ORTHOPTERA,  &c.  exist  from  six  to  nine,  twelve,  and  even  fifteen 
months;  and  some  instances  have  been  recorded  of  particular 
species,  when  kept  and  fed,  having  their  existence  prolonged 
considerably  beyond  this  term;  but  these  are  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule.  It  is  to  be  further  remarked,  that  insect  life  seems 
to  follow  a  different  law  to  that  which  prevails  among  vertebrated 
animals ;  in  which  the  duration  of  existence  is  generally  observed 
to  be  in  relation  to  the  period  of  their  attaining  maturity ;  such 
animals  being  long  or  short-lived,  in  proportion  as  they  attain 
their  full  growth  in  a  longer  or  shorter  space  of  time.  Among 
insects,  this  analogy  does  not  hold;  for  while  the  larva  of  the 
Goat  Moth  (Cossus  ligniperda)  is  three  years,  and  that  of  the 
Cabbage  Butterfly  not  three  months,  in  attaining  maturity,  yet  the 
perfect  insect,  in  both  species,  lives  equally  long.  The  Melolontha 
vulgaris,  which  exists  four  years  in  its  preparatory  stages,  lives 
only  eight  or  ten  days  as  a  perfect  insect.  Some  Ephemerae,  whose 


ENTOMOLOGY.  131 

larvae  have  enjoyed  two  years  of  preparatory  existence,  scarcely 
live  beyond  an  hour;  while  the  common  Flesh-fly,  whose  larvae 
attain  to  maturity  in  three  or  four  days,  exists  several  weeks. 

HABITS  AND  INSTINCTS  OF  INSECTS. 

On  the  habits  and  instincts  of  some  species  of  insects,  volumes 
have  been  written  without  exhausting  the  subject.  The  instructive 
faculty,  of  which  traces  are  discovered  in  the  other  classes  of 
animated  beings,  is  carried,  among  insects,  to  a  very  great  perfec- 
tion; and  human  reason  seems  startled  at  the  contemplation  of 
the  little  commonwealths  which  the  individuals  of  some  species 
form  by  their  aggregation.  There  is  something  so  striking  in  their 
combination  of  means  to  one  common  end ;  so  wonderful  in  the 
geometrical  structure  of  their  dwellings,  and  the  exact  determina- 
tion of  the  materials  to  the  space  and  strength  requisite  for  their 
purposes; — their  economy,  the  wars  of  rival  republics,  for  spoil 
or  captives, — are  so  astonishing, — that  one  would  feel  inclined 
to  doubt  the  truth  of  the  facts  related,  were  they  not  established 
beyond  a  possibility  of  contradiction.  But  although  the  works 
and  habits  of  insects  announce  an  industry,  of  which  the  higher 
classes  afford  few  examples,  yet  their  intellectual  faculties,  beyond 
the  instinctive  association  and  united  labour  of  some,  for  the  com- 
mon purposes  of  individual  preservation  and  the  continuance  of 
the  species,  seem  otherwise  inferior.  Insects  have,  at  birth,  all 
the  knowledge  requisite  for  these  purposes ;  and  this  knowledge 
consists  of  certain  ideas,  if  they  may  be  so  termed,  relative  to 
their  wants  and  the  employment  of  their  organs.  The  circle  of 
their  action  is  marked  out  for  them ;  but  so  limited,  in  many  cases, 
are  their  instinctive  faculties,  that  it  has  been  ascertained,  if  the 
pupa  be  reversed  in  its  cocoon,  with  its  head  placed  at  the  end 
which  has  no  apparatus  necessary  for  its  exit,  it  will  perish  in  the 
attempt  to  force  its  way  through  the  insuperable  obstacle,  even 
though  a  lateral  opening  be  made  for  its  escape.  The  natural 
faculty,  which  incites  them  in  a  determinate  and  constant  manner, 
to  seek  their  food,  &c.  is  what  is  termed  instinct;  and  is  better 
adapted,  in  its  limited  aims,  than  reason,  for  those  passengers 
over  the  scene  of  Nature,  whose  short  period  of  existence,  were 
they  otherwise  qualified,  affords  them  no  time  to  deliberate  on 
means,  or  to  profit  by  the  lessons  of  experience. 


132  ENTOMOLOGY. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSECTS. 

Insects,  according  to  the  views  of  the  most  distinguished  natu- 
ralists of  the  present  day,  form  the  fifth  class  to  the  third  sub- 
kingdom,  or  Annulosa.  Latreille's  latest  definition  is  "  Insecta: 
— A  single  dorsal  vessel,  representing  the  heart;  two  trunks,  or 
tracheae,  running  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  and  opening  ex- 
ternally by  numerous  spiracles ;  two  antennae ;  very  often,  upper 
appendages  for  flight,  indicating  die  metamorphosis  to  which  the 
animal  is  subject  when  young;  legs  most  commonly  reduced  to 
six."  The  character  of  an  insect,  as  given  by  that  celebrated 
naturalist,  Dr.  Leach,  and  which  we  have  adopted  in  the  intro- 
ductory part  of  this  Essay,  appears  more  defined,  from  its  sim- 
plicity and  briefness  of  character,  and  is  sanctioned  by  the  Rev. 
W.  Kirby,  the  first  of  entomologists,  and,  AVC  believe,  the  father 
of  the  science  in  England. 

Insects,  from  their  forms,  and  the  peculiar  construction  of 
the  mouth,  and  their  metamorphoses,  consist  of  two  grand  di- 
visions: namely, — AMETABOLIA,  insects  undergoing  no  meta- 
morphosis; and  METABOLIA,  insects  undergoing  metamorphosis. 
In  the  latter  are  two  sub-classes : — MANDIBULATA,  insects  having 
a  perfect  mouth;  and  HAUSTELLATA,  insects  with  the  mouth 
imperfect. 

AMETABOLIA. 

ORDER  1. — THYSANURA:  tail  armed  with  setae  (spring tails.) 
ORDER  2. — ANOPLURA:  tail  without  setae  (Lice.) 

METABOLIA. 

SUB-CLASS  I.-MANDIBULATA. 

ORDER  3. — COLEOPTERA  (Beetles:)  wings  two,  transversely 
folded;  covered  by  two  crustaceous,  or  hard  coriaceous  elytra 
meeting,  generally,  with  a  straight  suture;  mouth  with  mandibles; 
metamorphosis  incomplete. 

ORDER  4. — STREPSIPTERA:  wings  two,  longitudinally  fold- 
ed; mouth  with  mandibles;  metamorphosis  sub-coarctate  (or  with 
but  little  of  the  future  insect  visible.) 

ORDER  5. — DERMAPTERA  (Earwigs:)  wings  two,  longitudi- 
nally and  transversely  folded;  elytra  sub-crustaceous,  abbreviated 
with  the  suture  straight ;  mouth  with  mandibles ;  metamorphosis 
semi-incomplete. 

ORDER  6. — DICTYOPTERA  (Cock-roaches:)  wings  two,  lon- 
gitudinally folded  twice  or  more,  covered  by  two  coriaceous  elytra; 


ENTOMOLOGY.  133 

one  elytron  decussating  the  other  obliquely;  mouth  with  man- 
dibles; metamorphosis  semi-complete. 

ORDER  7. — ORTHOPTERA  (Grasshoppers  and  Locusts) :  wings 
two,  longitudinally  folded,  covered  by  two  coriaceous  elytra ;  the 
margin  of  one  elytron  covering  the  same  part  of  the  other; 
mouth  with  mandibles;  metamorphosis  semi-complete. 

ORDER  8. — NEUROPTERA  (Dragon-flies,  &c.):  wings  four, 
membranaceous,  generally  of  equal  size,  with  numerous  decussating 
pterigostia  (or  wing-bones,)  resembling  a  net-work ;  mouth  with 
mandibles,  maxillae  and  lip;  metamorphosis  incomplete,  or  semi- 
complete. 

ORDER  9. — HYMENOPTERA  (Bees,  Wasps,  &c.):  wings  four, 
membranaceous, — the  hinder  ones  always  smallest ;  the  pterigostia 
not  decussating  each  other  so  as  to  resemble  a  net-work;  mouth 
with  mandibles,  maxillae  and  lip;  metamorphosis  incomplete. 

SUB-CLASS  II.— HAUSTELLATA. 

ORDER  10. — HEMIPTERA  (Cimices,  Bugs):  wings  two,  co- 
vered by  two  crustaceous,  or  coriaceous  elytra,  the  tips  of  which 
are  generally  membranaceous,  horizontal,  and  the  one  decussating 
the  other  obliquely;  mouth  with  an  articulated  rostrum;  meta- 
morphosis semi-complete. 

ORDER  11, — OMOPTERA  (Cicadae,  or  Cuckoo-spits):  wings 
two,  covered  by  two  elytra,  which  are  entirely  coriaceous,  or  mem- 
branaceous, meeting  obliquely,  with  a  straight  suture;  mouth 
with  an  articulated  rostrum;  metamorphosis  semi-complete,  or 
incomplete. 

ORDER  12.— TRICHOPTERA  (Caddis-flies) :  wings  four,  mem- 
branaceous; the  pterigostia  hairy;  mouth  with  maxillae  and  lip; 
metamorphosis  incomplete. 

ORDER  13. — LEPIDOPTERA  (Butterflies,  Moths,  and  Hawk 
Moths) :  wings  four,  membranaceous,  covered  with  meal-like 
scales;  mouth  with  a  spiral  tongue;  metamorphosis  incomplete. 

ORDER  14. — DIPTERA  (House-flies):  wings  two,  with halteres, 
or  balancers,  at  tl\eir  base;  mouth  tubular,  formed  for  sucking; 
metamorphosis  incomplete,  or  sub-coarctate. 

ORDER  15. — OMALOPTERA  (Forest-flies  and  Sheep-ticks): 
mouth  furnished  with  mandibles  and  elongated  maxillae ;  lip  sim- 
ple ;  wings  two,  or  none ;  metamorphosis  coarctate. 

ORDER  16. — APTERA  (Fleas) :  no  wingsorelytra ;  mouth  with 
a  tubular,  jointed,  sucking  rostrum ;  metamorphosis  incomolete. 


134  ENTOMOLOGY. 

ORDERS    OF    INSECTS. 
ORDER  I.— THYSANOURA, 

To  this  order  belongs  the  Podura  of  Linnaeus:  a  term  im- 
plying that  they  have  a  leg  in  the  tail ;  which  is,  literally,  the  fact ; 
for  the  tail  of  these  insects  is  furnished  with  an  inflexed  fork, 
which,  though  usually  bent  under  the  body,  they  have  the  power 
of  unbending;  during  which  action,  the  forked  spring,  pushing 
powerfully  against  the  plane  of  position,  enables  the  animal  to 
leap  sometimes  two  or  three  inches.  The  toy  of  the  frog,  from  the 
elastic  spring  beneath,  will  convey  to  our  young  friends  the  prin- 
ciple of  this  movement.  What  is  more  remarkable,  these  little 
animals  are,  by  this  organ,  empowered  to  leap  even  upon  water. 
There  is  a  minute  black  species  (P.  aquatica)  which  is  found,  in 
the  winter,  on  the  snow ;  and,  in  the  spring,  is  often  seen  floating 
on  water  contained  in  ruts,  hollows,  or  even  ditches;  and  in  such 
infinite  numbers,  as  to  resemble  gunpowder  strewed  upon  the  sur- 
face. When  disturbed,  these  black  grains  are  seen  to  skip  about 
si  ^  j  as  if  ignited;  jumping  with  as  much  ease  as  if 
the  fluid  were  a  solid  plane  resisting  their  pres- 
sure. The  Lepisma  saccharina  (Fig.  31 ;  the  line 
beneath  it  is  the  natural  size,)  which  also  belongs 
to  this  order,  is  not  uncommon  among  rocks,  clothes,  &c.  and 
wanders  about  during  the  night.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
originally  introduced  into  Europe  from  America,  where  it  is  said 
to  live  amongst  sugar. 

ORDER  II.— ANOPLURA. 

The  animals  of  this  order  are  parasitical;  their  motion  is  slow, 
and  their  nourishment  is  derived  from  the  blood  of  mammalia 
and  birds.  It  is  almost  an  established  fact,  that  every  species  of 
bird,  and,  probably,  mammiferous  animal,  has  its  own  peculiar 
parasite;  and  there  is  no  instance  of  the  same  species  having  been 
observed  on  two  distinct  species  of  birds;  al- 
though some,  as  the  Raven,  Oyster-catcher,  &c. 
are  infested  with  several  species  of  parasites.  In 
Mexico  and  Peru,  these  animals  were  so  nume- 
rous, that  the  ancient  kings  found  no  other  means 
of  ridding  their  subjects  of  them,  than  by  the 
imposition  of  an  annual  tribute  of  a  certain  quantity.  Ferdinand 
Cortes  found  bags  full  of  them  in  the  palace  of  Montezuma.  (Fig,  32, 
Louse  of  the  goose;  the  line  at  the  side  is  the  natural  size.) 


ENTOMOLOGY.  135 

ORDER  III.— COLEOPTERA. 

The  insects  of  this  order  form  a  very  natural  division :  they 
have  hard  cases  to  their  wings  (with  a  longitudinal  suture,)  which, 
in  some,  are  united;  and,  therefore,  such  insects  have  no  wings: 
but  the  wings  in  most  are  two.  The  mouth,  in  general,  is  furnished 
with  two,  four,  and  sometimes  six,  palpi,  two  mandibles,  and  two 
maxillae;  it  is  covered  above  with  a  clypeus,  and  closed  below  with 
the  lips:  they  have  all  six  feet  in  their  perfect  state.  In  the 
antennae  there  is  the  greatest  diversity  of  shape  and  form;  which, 
in  this  system,  affords  the  principal  character  of  the  genera. 
They  have  a  hard,  horny  skin:  on  each  side  they  have  nine  spira- 
cula, — one  on  the  thorax,  and  eight  on  the  abdomen.  The  females 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  earth,  dung,  plants,  wood,  &c.  The  larvae 
have  six  feet  near  the  head  (which  differs  in  form  and  size  in  the 
different  genera);  jaws  at  the  mouth;  two  eyes;  often  short  an- 
tennas; and,  on  each  side,  nine  spiracula.  Those  that  feed  on 
plants,  and  their  roots,  move  but  slowly;  those  which  live  in  dead 
animals,  are  more  active;  others,  as  the  Carabidae,  Dyticidae,  and 
Staphylinidae,  which  feed  on  living  animals,  are  very  rapid  in  their 
motions.  We  shall  further  illustrate  this  order  of  insects,  by  giving 
the  natural  history,  as  far  as  our  limits  will  allow,  of  the  most 
interesting  species. 

The   Cicindelidee,  which  Linnaeus  has,  with  justice,  denomi- 
nated the  tigers  of  insects,  are  decorated  with   brilliant  colours; 
they  prey  upon   the   whole   insect  race:   their  jaws,  which  cross 
each  other,  are  armed  with  fearful  fangs;    and  the  extreme  velocity 
33  with  which  they  can  either  run  or  fly,  renders  hope- 

less any  attempt  to  elude  their  pursuit.  The  larva 
has  six  eyes,  three  on  each  side,  seated  on  a  lateral 
elevation  of  the  head,  like  those  of  spiders;  their 
jaws  are  armed  \\ith  a  strong  internal  tooth,  and 
their  backs  furnished  with  a  pair  of  spines,  some- 
what resembling  the  sting  of  a  Scorpion.  They  in- 
habit sandy  situations,  and  may  be  found  during 
the  spring  months.  Cicindela  campestris  is  more  common  than 
any  other  of  the  genus;  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
six  species  found  in  this  country  (Fig.  33,  the  natural  size.) 

Carabida  form  a  very  extensive    family  of  insects,  of  which 

several  hundred  species   inhabit  this  country.      They  are  generally 

found  on  the  ground,  under  stones,  in  sanJ-pits,  gardens,  &c.    The 

principal  distinction  is,  the  antennae  being  filiform,  and  the  mouth 

12 


136  ENTOMOLOGY. 

being  furnished  with  six  palpi.  The  whole  of  this  family  are 
very  voracious, — preying  on  all  insects  which  they  can  overcome. 
Mr.  Shepherd  states,  that  having  applied  a  specimen  of  Carabus 
violacens  (Fig.  34)  to  his  face,  it  caused  as  much  pain  as  if,  after 
shaving  himself,  he  had  rubbed  it  with  spirits  of  wine.  One  of  the 
most  singular  and  interesting  insects  of  this  family,  is  the  Brachinus 
crepitans,  or  Bombardier  (Fig.  35,  natural  size,)  which  is  rather  a 
local  insect;  but  where  they  do  inhabit,  may  generally  be  found  in 
profusion:  they  secrete  themselves,  during  the  day,  beneath  stones. 
The  sexes  of  this  family  may  generally  be  determined  by  that  of  the 
male  having  the  anterior  tarsus  dilated  (Fig.  36,  a)  ;  and  that  of  the 
female,simple  (Fig.  36, 6.)  This  is  also  observable  in  the  Cicindelidcf. 

34  35  36  37  38 


The  DyticidtB  are  truly  amphibious;  for  though  they  live  prin- 
cipally in  water,  they  have  also  the  faculty  of  going  upon  land  and 
flying  in  the  air,  which  they  generally  do  late  in  the  evening; 
and,  no  doubt,  frequently  transport  the  ova  of  fishes  to  distant 
waters,  where  they  alight:  this  will,  in  some  measure,  account 
for  the  fry  of  fishes  being  found  in  pools  caused  by  heavy  rains. 
The  general  form  is  oval,  more  or  less  oblong ;  in  the  larger  species, 
the  males  have  the  elytra  smooth,  and  those  of  the  females  are 
sulcated.  The  whole  of  this  family  swim  well,  having  the  posterior 
feet  compressed,  and  beautifully  fringed  with  hair.  The  larvae,  also, 
inhabit  the  water,  and  feed  on  the  smaller  insects,  and  even  on  fish ; 
they  have  a  long  and  narrow  body,  composed  of  eleven  or  twelve 
segments,  of  which  the  first  is  the  largest;  the  head  is  large,  and 
furnished  with  two  powerful  curved  mandibles.  The  larvae  leave 
the  water  in  April  or  May,  the  period  of  their  transformation,  and 
conceal  themselves  in  the  ground,  at  the  sides  of  ponds  anil  ditches, 
The  perfect  insect  may  be  found  throughout  the  year  (Fig.  37, 
Colymbetes  striatus,  in  the  act  of  flying.  Fig.  38,  a,  anterior  pa- 
telliform  foot  of  male  Dyticus;  b,  foot  of  female.) 

The  insects  of  the  family  Gyrinida,  are  also  aquatic,  running 
or  swimming  in  circles  on  the  surface  of  the  water;  and  when 
they  dive,  carrying  with  them  a  bubble  of  air  that  appears  like 
quicksilver.  These  bubbles,  says  Mr.  Kirby,  which  may  be  seen 


ENTOMOLOGY.  137 

clustering  in  groupes, — under  warm  banks,  in  every  river  and  every 
pool,  and  wheeling  round  and  round  with  great  velocity,  at  your 
approach,  dispersing  and  diving  under  water,  but  as  soon  as  you 
retire,  resuming  their  accustomed  movements, — 
seem  to  be  under  the  influence  of  the  social  prin- 
ciple, and  to  form  their  assemblies  for  no  other 
purpose  but  to  enjoy  together,  in  the  sun-bearn, 
the  mazy  dance.  The  body,  in  this  family,  is 
oval,  and  generally  shining;  the  antennae  are  in- 
serted in  a  cavity  before  the  eyes,  cylindrical  and  very  short ;  the 
head  is  sunk  in  the  thorax  to  the  eyes,  which  are  large  and  di- 
vided so  as  to  appear  as  four  (Gyrinus  aeneus,  fig.  3.9;  a,  the 
antennee  magnified;  6,  the  posterior  leg  magnified.) 

The  family,  Buprestida,  is  peculiarly  distinguished  by  the 
beauty  of  their  colours.  The  species  of  this  country  are  small 
and  few;  but  the  exotic  species,  besides  being  numerous,  are 
remarkable  for  their  size,  and  possess  the  lustre  of  polished  gold 
on  an  emerald  ground.  In  others,  azure  blue  is  reflected  on  a 
golden  base;  and  a  metallic  lustre,  of  various  kinds,  is  almost 
always  present.  The  Buprestidae  walk  slowly ;  but  their  flight  is 
rapid,  when  the  weather  is  dry  and  warm.  The  larvae,  which 
feed  on  dry  wood,  appear  to  live  many  years  without  a  meta- 
morphosis. A  curious  account,  relative  to  one  of  this  family,  has 
been  given  by  the  late  Mr.  Marsham,  which  we  shall  quote  for 
our  young  friends : — "  On  the  3d  of  January,  1810,  James  Mon- 
tague, Esq.  one  of  the  surveyors  to  the  corporation  of  London,  on 
going  to  his  desk,  in  the  office  of  works,  at  Guildhall,  observed  an 
insect,  which  had  been  seen  by  his  brother,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
day,  endeavouring  to  extricate  itself  from  the  wood  which  formed 
part  of  the  desk.  Mr.  Montague,  with  his  pen-knife,  carefully 
released  it  from  its  cell ;  and  it  proved  to  be  a  beautiful  Coleop- 
terous insect,  of  the  genus  Buprestis,  full  of  strength  and  vigour. 
The  desk,  which  is  eight  feet  nine  inches  long,  and  three  feet  five 
inches  wide,  is  made  of  fir-wood,  which  is  perfectly  sound.  It 
was  fixed  in  the  office  in  the  year  1788  or  1789;  and  it  has  re- 
mained there,  untouched,  ever  since;  excepting,  about  three  years 
ago,  it  was  planed,  to  remove  some  ink  spots;  by  which  opera- 
tion the  animal  had  a  very  narrow  escape  from  being  discovered, 
as  was  apparent  from  the  thinness  of  die  wood  over  the  cell, 
when  it  attempted  to  come  out.  The  insect,  with  a  piece  of 
the  wood,  about  a  foot  square,  cut  out  nearly  from  the  middle  of 
the  desk,  was  sent  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks;  but  a  thin  shaving  had 


138  ENTOMOLOGY. 

previously  been  taken  from  the  surface  of  the  board,  by  the  officious 
eare  of  a  carpenter,  who  chose  to  shave  away  the  stains  of  ink." 
This  insect  appears  to  have  been  the  Buprestis  splendens,  which  is 
occasionally  found  in  Sweden. — The  wing-cases  of  the 
•  larger  India  species,  are  frequently  used  by  the  ladies  of 

the  East,  as  ornaments  for  the  head  and  other  parts  of 
their  dress.  Buprestis  viridis  (Fig.  40)  inhabits  the  birch- 
trees  of  this  country  (a,  one  of  the  antenna?  magnified.) 

The  apparatus,  with  which  the  insects  of  the  genus  Elaterida 
are  provided,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  themselves  when  placed 
on  their  back,  which  is  a  difficult  feat  for  many  of  the  Coleopterous 
insects,  is  both  singular  and  curious.  An  elastic  spring,  or  spine, 
projects  from  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  breast;  and  there  is  a 
groove,  or  cavity,  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  abdomen.  When 
laid  on  its  back,  the  insect  raises  and  sustains  itself  on  the  anterior 
part  of  the  head  and  the  extremity  of  the  body;  by  which  means 
the  spine  is  removed  from  the  groove  where  it  is  lodged  when  in 
its  natural  position;  then  suddenly  bending  its  body,  the  spine  is 
struck,  with  force,  across  a  small  ridge,  or  elevation,  into  the  cavity 
from  whence  it  was  withdrawn;  by  which  shock,  the  parts  of  the 
body  before  sustained  in  the  air,  are  so  forcibly  struck  against 
whatever  the  insect  is  laid  on,  as  to  cause  it  to  spring,  or  rebound, 
to  a  considerable  distance.  The  antennae  are  lodged  in 
a  cavity,  scooped  out  of  the  under  side  of  the  head  and 
thorax,  which  completely  preserves  them  from  injury 
when  the  insect  falls,  after  its  singular  leap.  The  Elater 
segetis  (Fig.  41,)  known  in  its  larva  state  as  the  Wire-worm, 
causes,  annually,  a  large  diminution  of  the  produce  of  our  fields; 
destroying,  indiscriminately,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  grass. 

The  Silphiades  are  of  great  importance  in  the  economy  of 
nature,  as  both  the  larvae  and  perfect  insects  feed  on  carrion:  the 
latter  are  furnished  with  large  wings,  and  the  perforated  antennae 
appear  well  adapted  (if  they  be  organs  of  scent)  to  direct  them  to 
their  food.  A  small  dead  animal  is  soon  visited 
by  a  number  of  Silphae,  which  join  in  burying  it, 
after  they  have  deposited  their  eggs  in  its  body. 
A  mole  or  mouse  is  often  buried,  by  the  industry 
of  four  or  five  of  them,  in  the  space  of  four-and- 
twenty  hours :  they  scoop  out  the  earth  all  round 
and  below  the  animal,  which  gradually  sinks 
down,  while  the  agents  are  invisible.  The  larva?  undergo  their 
change  in  the  earth.  (Silpha  quadripunctata,  fig.  42.) 


ENTOMOLOGY.  139 

The  Death-watch,  one  of  the  Ptinidce,  is  a  dusky  and  some- 
what hairy  insect,  with  irregular  brownish  spots ;  it  is  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  In  the  advanced  state  of  spring,  these 
insects  usually  commence  their  noise,  which  is  no  more  than  a 
call,  or  signal,  by  which  they  mutually  attract  each  other;  and  it 
may  be  considered  as  analogous  to  the  call  of  birds.  This  noise 
does  not  arise  from  the  voice;  but  from  the  insect's  beating  on 
some  hard  substance  with  the  shield,  or  fore-part  of  the  head. 
The  general  number  of  successive  distinct  strokes,  is  from  seven 
to  nine  or  eleven.  These  are  given  in  pretty  quick  succession, 
and  are  repeated  at  uncertain  intervals.  In  old  houses,  where  the 
insects  are  numerous,  they  may  be  heard,  if  the  weather  be  warm, 
almost  every  hour  in  the  day.  The  noise  exactly  resembles  that 
made  by  beating  with  the  nail  on  a  table.  To  this  group  belongs 
the  celebrated  worm  which  is  so  injurious  to  books.  M.  Peignot 
mentions  an  instance,  of  twenty-seven  folio  volumes,  in  a  public 
library  but  little  frequented,  being  perforated,  in  a  straight  line,  by 
43  the  same  insect  (probably  Anobiuin  pertinax,  or  stria- 
turn,)  in  such  a  manner,  that  on  passing  a  cord  through 
the  perfectly  round  hole  made  by  it,  these  twenty-seven 
volumes  *x)uld  be  raised  at  once.  Anobium  tessellatum 
(Fig.  43,  natural  size,)  is  occasionally  found  in  the  wood  of  decayed 
willow-trees. 

The  highly-interesting  species,  Hydrous  piceus,  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  aquatic  insects.  The  larva,  which  is  black,  and  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  lives  in  still  waters  and  ponds;  its 
head  is  smooth  and  chestnut-coloured ;  it  has  six  short,  slender  feet, 
which  are  actually  placed  on  the  back;  and  a  tapering  tail,  through 
which  it  respires.  In  the  month  of  July  it  is  said  to  attain  its 
utmost  size;  at  that  time  it  quits  the  water,  creeps  along  the  dry 
ground  to  a  heap  of  dung,  and  makes  a  hole  under  it  pretty  deep, 
and  so  wide,  that  it  can  lie  in  it  rolled  up  in  a  circle;  it  there 
changes  into  its  pupa  state.  About  the  middle  of  August  the 
perfect  insect  appears.  Like  most  of  the  aquatic  insects,  it  lives 
through  the  winter,  diving  deep  into  mud  during  the  most  incle- 
ment weather  (Fig.  20,  page  120.) 

The  eggs  of  the  Common  Cockchafer  (Melolontha  vulgaris) 
are  deposited  in  the  ground  by  the  winged  insect,  whose  fore-legs 
are  very  short,  and  well  calculated  for  burrowing;  from  each  of 
these  proceeds,  after  a  short  time,  a  whitish  worm,  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  long,  with  six  legs,  a  red  head,  and  strong  claws, 
which  is  destined  to  live  in  the  earth  four  years,  and  there  undergo 
12* 


140  ENTOMOLOGY. 

various  intermediate  changes  of  its  skin,  until  it  assumes  its  chry- 
salis form.  It  subsists,  during  its  subterraneous  abode,  on  the 
roots  of  trees  and  plants,  committing  ravages,  often  of  the  most 
deplorable  nature.  These  creatures  sometimes,  in  immense  num- 
bers, work  between  the  turf  and  the  soil,  in  the  richest  meadows, 
devouring  tiie  roots  of  the  grass  to  such  a  ruinous  extent,  that 
the  turf  rises,  and  may  be  rolled  up  with  almost  as  much  ease  as 
if  it  had  been  cut  with  a  turfing-spade;  while  the  soil  beneath, 
for  about  an  inch  in  depth,  is  turned  into  a  soft  mould,  like  the 
bed  of  a  garden;  in  this  the  grubs  lie,  in  a  curved  position,  on 
their  backs,  the  head  and  tail  uppermost,  and  the  body  buried  in 
the  earth. 

In  the  year  1688,  the  Cockchafers  appeared  on  the  hedges  and 
trees  of  the  south-west  coast  of  the  county  of  Galway,  in  clusters 
of  thousands,  clinging  to  each  other,  in  the  manner  of  Bees  when 
they  swarm.  During  the  day  they  remained  quiet;  but  toward 
sun-set  the  whole  of  them  were  in  motion;  and  the  humming 
noise  of  their  wings  sounded  like  distant  drums.  Their  numbers 
were  so  great,  that,  for  the  space  of  two  or  three  square  miles, 
they  entirely  darkened  the  air.  Persons  travelling  on  the  roads, 
or  who  were  abroad  in  the  fields,  found  it  difficult  to  pursue  their 
course,  as  the  insects  were  continually  beating  their  faces,  and 
caused  great  pain.  In  a  very  short  time  the  leaves  of  all  the 
trees  in  the  neighbourhood  were  destroyed  f  leaving  the  face  of 
the  country,  although  it  was  near  Midsummer,  as  naked  and 
desolate  as  if  it  were  the  middle  of  winter.  The  noise  that  these 
enormous  swarms  made  in  seizing  and  eating  the  leaves,  was 
so  loud  as  to  have  been  compared  to  the  distant 
sawing  of  timber.  Swine  and  poultry  devoured 
such  clusters  of  them,  as  they  fell  from  the  trees, 
that  they  soon  became  fat,  without  any  other  food. 
The  insects  having,  at  length,  eaten  up  the  whole 
produce  of  the  ground,  the  inhabitants  adopted  a 
mode  of  dressing  them  for  food.  Toward  the 
end  of  summer  they  disappeared  so  suddenly,  that  in  a  few  days 
there  was  not  a  single  one  left  (Common  Cockchafer,  fig.  44.) 

Among  the  Melolonthida  is  the  Rose  Beetle  (Cetonia  aurata,) 
than  which  there  is  scarcely  any  of  the  English  Coleopterous 
insects  more  beautiful.  The  upper  parts  of  the  female  are  of  a 
shining  green  colour,  varying  according  to  the  light  in  which  it  is 
held,  and  marked  transversely  on  the  wing-cases  with  a  few  short 
white  or  yellowish  lines.  The  male  is  of  a  burnished  copper 


ENTOMOLOGY.  141 

colour,  with  a  greenish  cast.  They  are  to  be  found  on  flowers 
during  the  month  of  June,  particularly  on  those  of  the  Rose  or 
peony.  The  grubs  that  produce  this  Beetle,  feed  under  ground, 
most  commonly  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  never  appear  on  the 
surface,  unless  disturbed  by  digging,  or  some  other  accident. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  injurious  to  the  gardener,  from  their 
devouring  the  roots  of  plants  and  trees.  The  female  deposits  her 
eggs  in  the  middle  of  June.  For  this  purpose  she  burrows  into 
soft,  light  ground,  hollowing  it  out  so  as  to  form  a  proper  recep- 
tacle. When  this  operation  is  complete,  she  returns  to  the  surface, 
and  flies  off,  but  seldom  lives  more  than  two  months  afterwards. 
The  grubs  are  produced  in  about  fourteen  days,  and  immediately 
seek  for  food,  which  is  never  far  distant,  as  the  parent  always 
lays  her  eggs  near  a  supply  of  provision  proper  for  the  infant 
45  larvae.  As  soon  as  they  have  attained  sufficient  strength, 
the  young  grubs  separate,  each  burrowing  a  different 
way  in  search  of  roots.  They  remain  four  years  in  this 
state,  annually  changing  their  skin,  till  they  become  of 
full  growth ;  at  that  time  the  larva  is  of  a  cream  colour, 
with  a  brown  head  and  feet.  During  winter  they  eat 
but  little,  if  at  all,  and  retire  so  deep  into  the  ground  as  to  avoid 
the  effects  of  the  frost.  (Fig.  45,  Rose  Beetle.) 

The  LucanidtB  are  the  largest  of  the  British  COLEOPTERA  ;  the 
larva  is  white,  and  lives  on  putrid  wood,  generally  oak;  its  head 
and  feet  are  of  a  rust  colour.  The  perfect  insect  varies  in  size 
and  colour ;  in  general  it  is  dark  brown  or  blackish :  the  jaws  are 
very  large, — about  one-third  of  the  length  of  the 
whole  insect,  and  have  a  distant  resemblance  to  the 
horns  of  a  stag;  the  female,  which  is  much  less 
than  the  male,  wants  these,  or,  at  least,  they 
are  shorter  than  the  head.  This  species  is  occa- 
sionally found  in  profusion,  in  Kent  and  Surrey, 
during  the  months  of  June  and  July.  It  appears, 
that  such  larvae  as  feed  on  the  oak,  generally 
produce  the  finest  specimens;  and  that  those 
which  feed  on  the  willow,  are  much  smaller;  the  males  fly  in  the 
evening;  the  females  are  seldom  observed  on  the  wing  (Fig.  46, 
the  male  Stag  Beetle.) 

The  Curculio  of  the  Nut  (Curculio  nucum)  proceeds  from  a 
very  small  brown  egg,  which  the  parent  deposits  on  the  outside 
of  the  nut,  at  a  time  when  it  is  very  soft  and  tender.  As  soon 
as  the  heat  of  the  season  has  perfected  the  little  grub,  it  eats  its 


142  ENTOMOLOGY. 

way  out  of  the  egg,  and  through  the  shell  into  the  nut.  Its  chief 
food,  at  this  time,  is  the  coat  of  the  nut,  or  that  part  which 
afterwards  hardens  into  the  shell;  and  it  continues  to  feed  on 
this  and  the  interior  pulp,  until  the  one  becomes  too  hard,  and 
the  other  too  dry  for  its  sustenance.  It  then  attacks  the  kernel, 
which,  by  that  time,  is  grown  large  enough  to  afford  it  support: 
this  seems  a  most  providential  instinct;  for  had  the  Curculio  begun 
to  feed  on  die  kernel  when  small,  it  would  have  destroyed  that 
on  which  its  future  support  depended,  as  well  as  the  principal 
food  allotted  to  it  by  Nature,  while  in  a  larva  state.  It  con- 
stantly  attends  to  the  hole  by  which  it  entered,  gnawing  away  the 
sides  so  as  to  make  them  very  round  and  smooth ;  this  not  only 
allows  it  sufficient  air,  but  is  also  the  passage  through  which, 
when  it  is  full  fed,  and  ready  to  undergo  its  change, 
it  makes  its  way  out.  About  the  month  of  September, 
or,  perhaps,  somewhat  later,  the  nut  becomes  ripe  and 
falls  to  the  ground.  At  this  time  the  Curculio  is  gene- 
rally prepared  for  the  change,  and  works  itself  through 
the  hole.  It  then  buries  itself  in  the  earth,  and,  shortly 
after,  changes  into  a  chrysalis;  in  which  state  it  remains  till  the 
following  spring,  and  about  the  beginning  of  May,  assumes  the 
Beetle  form  (Fig.  47.) 

The  grubs  of  the  Palm  Weevil  (Calandra  palmarum,)  an  insect 
belonging  to  this  family,  which  are  as  large  as  the  thumb,  have  been 
long  in  request,  both  at  Demerara  and  Surinam,  as  an  article  of 
food,  both  by  the  whites  and  blacks,  who  empty,  wash  them  in 
salt  and  water,  and  dress  them,  by  roasting,  or  frying  them  in 
butter  or  crumbs  of  bread:  when  properly  cooked,  they  are  said 
to  be  exquisite. 

The  family  Cerambycidce  is  numerous,  and  has  been  divided 
into  several  genera  by  Fabricius  and  others.  But  few  of  the 
species  are  inhabitants  of  Britain.  Their  larvae  live  in  wood, 
which  they  perforate  and  consume.  They 
are  the  favourite  food  of  woodpeckers ;  they 
have  shorter  feet  than  the  larvae  of  most 
other  COLEOPTERA.  The  antennae  are  often 
longer  than  the  body  of  the  perfect  insect ; 
they  are  bent,  and  have  some  resemblance 
to  the  horns  of  a  goat  or  stag.  The  thorax 
of  the  Cerambya  moschatus  (Fig.  48)  is 
armed  with  a  spine ;  the  antenna?  are  bluish,  and  of  the  same  length 
with  the  body.  It  is  among  the  largest  of  the  European  species; 


ENTOMOLOGY,  143 

it  varies  much  as  to  colour,  being  green,  purple,  or  coppery;  the 
body,  dark  blue:  it  has  a  very  strong  musk-like  smell.  The 
larvae  feed  on  the  soft  wood  of  willows.  In  June  the  perfect  insect 
appears;  and  when  taken,  emits  a  peculiar  noise,  produced  by  the 
movement  of  the  thorax  against  the  elytra. 

The  insects  of  the  family  Chrysomelidte  are,  for  the  most  part, 
nearly  hemispherical,  and  adorned  with  shining  and  splendid 
colours.  They  live  on  leaves,  but  do  not  eat  the  nerves.  Their 
larvae  are  soft,  and,  in  general,  of  an  oval  shape,  somewhat  elon- 
gated, with  six  feet  near  the  head.  The  last  joint  of  their  feet,  or 
the  tarsus,  consists  of  four  articulations.  Chrysomela  populi  (Fig.  49) 
49  is  found  on  the  aspen:  this  is  one  of  the  larger 

of  the  British  species  of  this  genus.   The  elytra 
are  red  and  finely  punctured,  and  have  a  small 
black  spot  at  the  apex.      The  larva  commits 
great  ravages  on  the  leaves  of  the  aspen,  leaving  nothing  but  the 
nerves.     It  is  variegated  with  black  and  white,  and,  when  touched, 
it  discharges  a  very  fetid  oily  matter  from  a  double  row  of  tuber- 
cles on  its  sides.      To  this  family,  also,  belongs  that  very  curious 
jf.^      insect,  Cassida  equestris   (Fig.  50,)   which  is  found  fre- 
Mfjyu      quently  on  thistles,  and  on  the  verticillated  plants.      The 
\UjJ/     body  is  oval,  convex  above,  and  flat  below.     The  elytra 
project  over  the  sides,  and  totally  cover  the  whole  body, 
so  that  no  part  of  it  is  seen.      The  larva  has  six  feet,  and  feeds 
on  the  thistle;    it  is  broad,  short,  and  depressed,  with  acute  spines 
on  the  sides:   its  tail  is  recurved,  and  terminates  in  a  sort  of  fork. 
The  larva  often  changes  the  skin.     The  pupa  is  broad,  flat,  and 
almost  oval,  surrounded  with  a  number  of  fringe-like  appendages, 
and  with  an  arched  band,  or  front.      It  is  of  a  pale  green  colour, 
and  found  on  thistles.      In  fifteen  days  the  perfect  insect  appears. 
The  next  family  we  have  to  mention,    Coccinellidte,  includes 
the  insect  commonly  called,  in  England,  the  Lady-bird  (Fig.   51.) 
si        The  larvae  feed  on  the  Aphides,  or  Plant  Lice,  and  are 
/nynh      beneficial    in  gardens   and   hop-grounds  on   that  account. 
myj      The  species   are  numerous  and  subject  to  great  variety. 
Several  of  the  species  live  through  the  winter  and  appear 
early  in  the  spring.      In   1807,  the  shores  at  Brighton,  and  all  the 
watering-places   on  the  south  coast,   were  literally  covered  with 
Lady-birds,  to  the  great   surprise,  and  even  alarm,  of  the  inha- 
bitants, who  were  ignorant  that  their  little  visitors  were  emigrants 
from  the  neighbouring  hop-grounds;    where,  in  their  larva  state, 
each  had  slain  his  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  the  Aphis, 


144  ENTOMOLOGY. 

which,  under  the    name   of  the    Fly,  so   frequently  destroys  the 
hopes  of  the  hop-grower. 


ORDER  IV.— STREPSIPTERA. 

Mr.  Kirby,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Monographia  Apum 
Angliae,  gives  the  following  account  of  Stylops  melitta: — "Upon 
this  insect  (Melitta  nigro-aenea)  I  discovered,  last  spring  (1801,)  a 
very  singular  animal,  which  seems  appropriate  to  the  present  genus. 
I  had  previously,  more  than  once,  observed  upon  other  species, 
something  that  I  took  to  be  a  kind  of  Acarus,  which  .appeared  to 
be  immoveably  fixed  just  at  the  inosculations  of  the  dorsal  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen.  At  length,  finding  three  or  four  upon  a 
specimen  of  Melitta  nigro-aenea,  I  determined  not  to  lose  that 
opportunity  of  taking  one  off  to  examine  and  describe;  but  what 
was  my  astonishment,  when,  upon  my  attempting  to  disengage  it 
with  a  pin,  I  drew  forth,  from  the  body  of  the  Melitta,  a  white 
fleshy  larva,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length, — the  head  of  which 
I  had  mistaken  for  an  Acarus! — After  I  had  examined  one  spe- 
cimen, I  attempted  to  extract  a  second;  and  the  reader  may 
imagine  how  greatly  my  astonishment  was  increased,  when,  after 
I  had  drawn  it  out  but  a  little  way,  1  saw  its  skin  burst,  and  a 
head  as  black  as  ink,  with  large,  staring  eyes,  and  antennae  con- 
sisting of  two  branches,  break  forth  and  move  itself  briskly  from 
side  to  side!  It  looked  like  a  little  imp  of  darkness  just  emerging 
from  the  infernal  regions.  My  eagerness  to  set  free  from  its  con- 
finement this  extraordinary  animal,  may  be  easily  conjectured: 
indeed,  I  was  impatient  to  become  better  acquainted  with  so 
singular  a  creature.  When  it  was  completely  disengaged,  and  I 
had  secured  it  from  making  its  escape,  I  set  myself  to  examine  it 
as  accurately  as  possible;  and  I  found,  after  a  careful  inquiry, 
that  I  had  not  only  got  a  nondescript,  but  also  an  insect  of  a 
new  genus,  whose  very  class  seemed  dubious."  Since  the  above, 
the  assiduous  J.  C.  Dale,  Esq.  of  Dorset,  has  discovered  a  new 
species  of  this  highly-interesting  order  of  insects.  His  observations 
we  shall  take  as  given  by  Mr.  Curtis  in  his  British  Entomology: 
— "  Every  specimen  of  Andrena  barbilabus  I  have  seen  this  year, 
from  the  27th  of  April  to  the  4th  of  June  (1828,)  has  contained 
larvae,  pupae,  or  exuvise  of  Stylops,  from  one  to  three  in  each.  On 
the  5th  of  May  I  picked  one  out  with  a  pin;  on  the  7th,  another, 
rather  immature;  and  caught  one  flying,  in  the  hot  sunshine, 
over  a  quickset  hedge  in  the  garden:  it  looked  milk-white  on  the 


ENTOMOLOGY.  145 

wing,  with   a  jet-black  body,  and  totally  unlike  anything  else; 
it    flew    with  an    undulating,  or   vacillating   motion,  among   the 
young  shoots,  and  I  could  not  catch 
it  till  it  settled  on  me ;  when  it  ran 
up  and  down,  its  wings  in  motion, 
and  making  a  considerable  buzz,  or 
hum,  nearly  as  loud  as  a  Sesia.    It 
twisted  about  its  rather  long  tail, 
and  turned  it  up  like  a  Staphylinus. 
1    I  put  it  under  a  glass,  and  placed  it 
<»J    in  the  sun;    it  became  quite  furious 
in  its  confinement,  and  never  ceased 

running  about  for  two  hours.  The  elytra,  or  processes,  were  kept 
in  quick  vibration,  as  well  as  the  wings;  it  buzzed  against  the 
sides  of  the  glass,  with  its  head  touching  it,  and  tumbled  about  on 
its  back."  (Fig.  52,  Stylops  melitta,  magnified;  the  line,  a,  shows 
its  natural  size.) 

ORDER  V.— DERMAPTERA. 

Forficula  auricularia  (Common  Earwig,)  is  a  well-known  insect, 
and  easily  distinguishable  from  all  Beetles,  by  the  forceps,  or 
pincers,  at  the  end  of  its  tail.  The  larva  differs  very  little  in  its 
external  appearance  from  the  complete  insect,  except  that  it  has 
neither  wings  nor  elytra,  and  that  the  breast  and  thorax  are  not 
distinguishable.  In  this  state  it  is  a  very  lively  little  animal,  run- 
ning about  with  great  agility,  even  from  the  instant  it  leaves  the 
egg.  In  its  metamorphosis  to  a  perfect  insect,  a  part  of  its  body 
bursts  behind  and  gives  full  play  to  the  wings.  It  may  not,  perhaps, 
be  generally  known,  that  the  Earwig  is  possessed  of  wings,  and 
that  one  of  them  will  nearly  cover  the  whole  insect.  The  elytra, 
or  wing-cases,  are  short,  and  extend,  not  along  the  whole  body, 
but  only  over  the  two  first  joints  of  the  abdomen.  Beneath  these 
the  wings  are  concealed:  they  are  somewhat  of  an  oval  shape,  and, 
when  extended,  are  nine  or  ten  times  as  large  as  the  elytra.  There 
is  a  degree  of  elegance  in  the  manner  in  which  the  insect  folds 
them  beneath.  They  are  first  closed  up,  lengthwise,  from  a  centre, 
close  to  the  body,  like  a  fan;  and,  afterwards,  re-folded  across 
in  two  different  places, — one,  about  the  middle  of  the  membrane, 
and  the  other  at  the  centre,  from  whence  the  first  folds  proceed. 
By  these  means,  the  wing  is  reduced  into  a  small  compass,  and 
proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  case  under  which  it  is  to  lie. 


146  ENTOMOLOGY. 

It  is  a  circumstance  extremely  singular,  that  unlike  those  of 
most  others  of  the  insect  tribe,  the  eggs  are  hatched,  and  the 
young  Earwigs  fostered  by  the  parent.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
month  of  June,  M.  de  Geer  found,  under  a  stone,  a  female  Earwig 
accompanied  by  many  little  insects,  which,  evidently,  appeared 
to  be  her  own  young.  They  continued  close  to  her,  and  often 
placed  themselves  under  her  belly,  as  chickens  do  under  a  hen. 
He  put  the  whole  into  a  box  of  fresh  earth.  They  did  not  enter 
the  earth ;  but  it  was  pleasing  to  observe  how  they  thrust  them- 
selves under  the  belly  and  between  the  legs  of  the  mother,  who 
remained  very  quiet,  and  suffered  them  to  continue  there  some- 
times for  an  hour  or  two  together.  This  gentleman  gave  them  a 
piece  of  a  very  ripe  apple:  in  an  instant  the  old  one  ran  upon  it, 
and  ate  with  a  good  appetite ;  the  young  ones  also  seemed  to  eat 
a  little,  but,  apparently,  with  much  less  relish.  On  the  8th  of 
June  he  remarked  that  the  young  Earwigs  had  changed  their 
skins;  and  he  found,  also,  the  sloughs  which  they  had  quitted. 
This  moulting  produced  only  a  slight  change  in  their  figure,  yet 
it  evidently  brought  them  nearer  to  the  perfect  insect.  At  another 
time,  about  the  beginning  of  April,  he  found  a  female  Earwig, 
under  some  stones,  over  a  heap  of  eggs,  of  which  she  took  all 
the  care  imaginable,  without  ever  forsaking  them.  He  placed 
both  the  female  and  her  eggs  in  a  box  half  filled  with  fresh  earth, 
and  dispersed  the  eggs  up  and  down  in  it.  She,  however,  soon 
removed  them,  one  after  another,  carrying  them  between  her 
jaws;  and,  at  the  end  of  a  few  days,  he  saw  that  slie  had  collected 
them  all  into  one  place  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  re- 
mained constantly  on  the  heap-,  without  quitting  it  for  a  moment, 
so  that  she  seemed  truly  to  sit  for  the  purpose  of  hatching  her 
eggs.  The  young  were  produced  about  the  13th  of  May.  In 
figure  they  were  similar  to  those  before  mentioned ;  but  at  birth 
they  were  all  white,  except  towards  the  tail,  where  a  yellow 
matter  M'as  observable  through  the  skin,  and  the  eyes  and  teeth, 
which  were  reddish-  He  kept  them  in  a  box  with  their  mother, 
feeding  them,  from  time  to  time,  with  bits  of  apple.  He  perceived 
that  they  grew  daily,  and  changed  their  skins  more  than  once. 
The  mother  died,  and  her  progeny  devoured  nearly  the  whole  of 
her  body.  The  little  ones  that  died  underwent  also  the  same 
fate.  M.  de  Geer,  however,  conjectures  that  this  took  place  only 
from  want  of  other  food,  as  he  had  neglected  to  supply  them 
regularly  with  nutriment.  On  the  23d  of  July  one  only  remained 
alive:  it  was  full-grown,  and  then  in  the  nymph,  or  pupa  state. 


ENTOMOLOGY.  147 

This  insect,  though  in  its  nature  extremely  harmless,  except 
in  gardens,  to  fruits  and  vegetables,  has  fallen,  in  a  very  particular 
manner,  a  victim  to  human  cruelty  and  caprice;  originating  in  the 
idea,  that  it  introduces  itself  into  the  ears,  and  from  thence 
penetrates  to  the  brain,  and  occasions  death.  We  must  be  per- 
mitted to  express  a  wish,  that  females,  who  but  too  commonly 
lay  aside  all  ideas  of  tenderness  at  the  very  sight  of  it,  would  be 
convinced,  that  the  wax  and  membranes  of  the  ears  are  a  sufficient 
defence  against  all  its  pretended  attacks  upon  those  organs.  Our 
gardeners  have,  it  is  true,  some  reason  for  complaint:  it  lives 
among  flowers,  and  frequently  destroys  them ;  and  when  fruit  has 
been  wounded  by  flies,  the  Earwigs,  also,  generally  come  in  for 
a  share  of  it.  In  the  night  they  may  often  be  seen,  in  amazing 
numbers,  upon  lettuces,  and  other  esculent  vegetables,  commit- 
ting those  depredations  that  are  often  ascribed  to  snails  or  slugs. 
The  best  mode,  therefore,  of  destroying  them  seems  to  be,  to 
attend  the  garden,  now  and  then,  in  the  night,  and  to  seize  them 
53  while  they  are  feeding.  The  bowl  of  a  tobacco- 

pipe,  and  the  claws  of  lobsters,  stuck  upon  sticks 
that  support  flowers,  are  the  usual  methods  by  which 
they  are  caught,  as,  in  the  day-time,  they  creep 
into  holes  and  dark  places.  Placing  hollow  reeds 
behind  the  twigs  of  wall-trees,  is  also  a  good  mode, 
if  they  be  examined  and  cleared  every  morning ;  but  at  a  mid- 
night visit,  more  may  be  done  in  an  hour  than  by  any  other 
means  in  a  week.  (Fig.  53  is  the  Common  Earwig  with  the  wings 
expanded.) 

ORDER  VI.— DICTYOPTERA* 

As  yet  we  have  only  one  genus  belonging  to  this  order:  the 
species  are  numerous,  and  few  countries  are  without  them.  In  a 
state  of  nature,  they  inhabit  trees,  concealing  themselves,  during 
the  day,  beneath  loose  bark,  and  under  leaves,  &c.  The  common 
Black-beetle,  or  Cockroach,  was,  originally,  a  native  of  South 
America,  but  is  now  very  generally  spread  throughout  Europe. 
In  tropical  climes  it  appears  to  be  a  complete  nuisance.  These 
nasty  and  voracious  insects,  says  Mr.  Drury,  fly  out  in  the 
evening  and  commit  monstrous  depredations;  they  plunder  and 
erode  all  kinds  of  victuals,  dressed  and  undressed ;  and  damage 
all  sorts  of  clothing,  especially  those  which  are  touched  with 
powder,  pomatum,  and  similar  substances,  every  thing  made  of 
leather,  books,  paper,  and  various  other  articles,  which,  if  they 
13 


148 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


do  not  destroy,  at  least  they  soil.  He  proceeds  to  state,  that 
they  fly  into  the  Hume  of  candles,  and  sometimes  into  the  dishes; 
are  very  fond  of  ink  and  of  oil,  into  which  they  are  apt  to  fall 
and  perish.  In  this  case,  they  soon  turn  most  offensively  putrid, 
so  that  a  man  might  as  well  sit  over  a  cadaverous  body  of  a 
large  animal,  as  write  with  the  ink  in  which  they  have  died. 
They  often  fly  into  persons'  faces  or  bosoms;  and  their  legs  being 
armed  with  sharp  spines,  the  pricking  excites  a  sudden  horror, 
not  easily  described.  In  old  houses  they  swarm  by  myriads, 
making  every  part  filthy  beyond  description  wherever  they  har- 
bour; which,  in  the  day-time,  is  in  dark  corners;  behind  all  sorts 
of  clothes;  in  trunks,  boxes,  and,  in  short,  every  place  where 
they  can  be  concealed.  In  old  timber,  arid 
deal  houses,  when  the  family  is  retired  at  night 
to  sleep,  this  insect,  among  other  disagreeable 
properties,  has  the  power  of  making  a  noise 
which  very  much  resembles  a  pretty  smart 
knocking  with  the  knuckles  upon  the  wain.s- 
cotting.  The  Blatta  Gigantea  of  Linnseus,  in 
the  West  Indies,  is,  therefore,  frequently  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Drummer.  Three  or  four 
of  these  noisy  creatures  will  sometimes  be  impelled  to  answer  one 
another,  and  cause  such  a  drumming  noise,  that  none  but  those 
that  are  very  good  sleepers  can  rest  for  them.  Blatta  Germanica 
(Fig.  54)  is  occasionally  found  in  houses,  and  is  said  to  drive  out 
the  larger  species. 

ORDER  VII ORTHOPTERA. 

The  House  Cricket  (Acheta   domestica,  fig.  55,)   resides  alto- 
gether in   our    dwellings,    and    frequently    intrudes    itself  on    our 
55  notice.      These   insects  are  partial  to  newly- 

built  houses;  the  softness  of  the  mortar  enabling 
them  to  form  their  retreats,  without  much  diffi- 
culty, between  the  joints  of  the  masonry,  and 
immediately  to  open  communications  with  the 
different  rooms.  They  are  particularly  attached 
to  kitchens,  bakehouses,  and  such  other  places 
as  afford  them  that  constant  warmth  in  which 
they  take  so  much  delight.  Tender  insects  that  live  abroad,  says 
Mr.  White,  either  enjoy  only  the  short  period  of  one  summer, 
or  else  doze  away  the  cold,  uncomfortable  months  in  profound 
slumbers;  but  these,  residing,  as  it  were,  in  a  torrid  zone,  are 


ENTOMOLOGY.  149 

always  alert  and  merry;  a  good  Christmas  fire  is  to  them  what 
the  heats  of  the  dog-days  are  to  others.  Though  they  are  fre- 
quently heard  by  day,  yet  their  natural  time  of  motion  is  only  in 
the  night.  As  soon  as  it  becomes  dusk,  the  chirping  increases; 
they  come  running  forth,  and  are  to  be  seen  often  in  great  num- 
bers, from  the  size  of  a  Flea  to  that  of  their  full  stature.  As  one 
would  suppose,  from  the  burning  atmosphere  which  they  inhabit, 
they  are  a  thirsty  race,  and  show  a  great  propensity  for  liquids, 
being  found  frequently  drowned  in  pans  of  water,  milk,  broth,  or 
ihe  like.  Whatever  is  moist  they  are  fond  of;  and,  therefore, 
often  gnaw  holes  in  wet  woollen  stockings,  and  aprons,  that  are 
hung  to  the  fire.  These  Crickets  are  not  only  very  thirsty,  but 
very  voracious:  for  they  will  eat  the  scummings  of  pots,  yeast, 
salt,  and  crumbs  of  bread;  and  any  kitchen  offal  or  sweepings. 
In  the  summer  they  have  been  observed  to  fly,  when  it  becomes 
dusk,  out  of  the  windows  and  over  the  neighbouring  roofs.  This 
feat  of  activity  accounts  for  the  sudden  manner  in  which  they 
often  leave  their  haunts,  as  it  does,  also,  for  the  method  by  which 
they  come  to  houses  where  they  were  not  known  before.  It  is 
remarkable,  that  many  sorts  of  insects  seem  never  to  use  their 
wings  but  when  they  wish  to  shift  their  quarters  and  settle  new 
colonies.  When  in  the  air,  they  move  in  waves,  or  curves,  like 
the  woodpeckers,  opening  and  shutting  their  wings  at  every  stroke, 
and  thus  are  always  rising  or  sinking.  When  they  increase  to  a 
great  degree,  they  become  pests;  flying  into  the  candles,  and 
dashing  into  people's  faces;  but  they  may  be  blasted  by  gun- 
powder discharged  into  their  crevices  and  crannies.  In  families, 
at  such  times,  they  are  like  Pharaoh's  plague  of  frogs, — *  in  their 
bed-chambers  and  upon  their  beds;  and  in  their  ovens,  and  in 
their  kneading  troughs.'  Cats  catch  Hearth  Crickets,  and,  playing 
with  them  as  they  do  with  mice,  devour  them.  Crickets  may  be 
destroyed  like  Wasps,  by  phials  half-filled  with  beer,  or  any  liquid, 
and  set  in  their  haunts;  for,  being  always  eager  to  drink,  they 
will  crowd  in  till  the  bottles  are  full.  A  popular  prejudice,  how- 
ever, frequently  prevents  any  attempt  at  their  destruction ;  many 
people  imagining  that  their  presence  is  attended  with  good  luck, 
and  that  to  kill,  or  drive  them  away,  will  surely  bring  some  un- 
fortunate occurrence  on  the  family.  When  these  insects  are  running 
about  a  room  in  the  dark,  if  they  be  surprised  by  a  candle,  they 
give  two  or  three  shrill  notes:  these  seem  to  be  a  signal  to  their 
fellows,  that  they  may  escape  to  their  crannies  and  lurking-holey 
to  avoid  danger. 


150  ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  Mole  Cricket  (Gryllotalpa  vulgaris,  fig.  56,)  is  a  complete 
representation  of  the  mole,  among  the  insect  tribes:  its  fore  feet 
are  broad  and  strong,  and,  in  their  formation  and  position,  bear 
56  ^  -  a  Sreat  resemblance  to  the  fore 

feet  of  that  animal ;  they  are 
used  for  precisely  the  same 
purpose — burrowing  under  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  where 
the  insect  commonly  resides; 
and  so  expertly  does  it  work 
them,  that  it  can  penetrate  the 
earth  with  even  greater  expedition  than  the  mole.  The  female 
forms  a  cell  of  clammy  earth,  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  closed 
up  on  every  side,  and  within,  as  large  as  two  hazel-nuts.  The 
eggs,  amounting  to  nearly  a  hundred  and  fifty,  are  white,  and 
about  the  size  of  caraway -comfits;  they  are  carefully  covered,  as 
well  to  defend  them  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather,  as  from 
the  attacks  of  one  of  the  species  of  Black-Beetles,  which  often 
destroys  them.  The  female  places  herself  near  the  entrance  of 
the  nest,  and  whenever  the  Beetle  attempts  to  seize  its  prey,  the 
guardian  insect  catches  it  behind  and  bites  it  asunder.  Nothing 
can  exceed  the  care  of  these  creatures  in  the  preservation  of  their 
young.  Wherever  a  nest  is  situated,  fortifications,  avenues,  and 
entrenchments  surround  it;  there  are,  also,  numerous  meanders 
which  lead  to  it;  and  a  ditch,  which  few  other  insects  are  capable 
of  passing,  encompasses  the  whole.  About  the  middle  of  April, 
if  the  weather  be  fine,  and  just  at  the  close  of  day,  the  Mole 
Crickets  utter  a  low,  dull,  jarring  note,  not  unlike  the  chattering 
of  the  Goat-sucker. 

ORDER  VIII.— NEUROPTERA. 

Many  of  the  larvae  of  this  order  of  insects  reside  in  the  water, 
and  do  not  leave  it  till  they  change  to  the  perfect  insect;  others 
are  terrestrial;  some  are  found  under  the  bark  of  trees;  and 
others  are  concealed  in  sand.  These  larvae  are  generally  carni- 
vorous. The  metamorphosis  is  not  the  same  in  all  species.  The 
larvse,  which  are  found  in  the  water,  have  organs  which,  at  first 
sight,  appear  analogous  to  the  gills  of  fishes,  but  which  are,  in 
fact,  tracheal  appendages.  Some  of  them  construct  a  case  of  dif- 
ferent, kinds,  of  materials,  which  they  carry  about  with  them. 
Many  of  the  NEUROPTERA,  in  their  perfect  state,  such  as  the  Ephe- 
mera, take  little  or  no  fooJ,  and,  in  that  state,  live  for  a  very 


ENTOMOLOGY.  161 

short  period;  while  others,  as  the  Libeling,  are  carnivorous; 
and,  hovering  over  the  places  where  they  expect  to  find  their  prey, 
dart  upon  it  with  all  the  eagerness  of  the  hawk. 

The  insects  of  the  family  Libellula  are  remarkable  for  their 
elegant  form   and  the  brilliancy  of  their   colours;    their  motions 
57    ^  are  light  and  airy;   their  dress 

is  silky,  and  variegated;  and 
its  trimming  excels  the  finest 
lace  (Libellula  depressa,  fe- 
,  male,  fig.  57.)  Their  habits  are 
truly  carnivorous,  and  they 
are  not  very  nice  in  the  choice 
of  their  food.  In  their  rapid 
flight  they  seize  small  flies, 
and  even  the  Flesh-fly  and  Butterflies :  the  wings  of  which  they  im- 
mediately bite  off",  and  then  devour  the  bodies.  They  follow  their 
prey  from  five  in  the  morning  until  late  in  the  evening,  even  to  the 
time  of  the  appearance  of  the  night-flying  insects,  which  they  pursue 
along  the  hedge-rows.  The  larvae  are  a  terror  to  the  aquatic 
insects  in  those  waters  where  they  reside.  Having  no  swimming 
feet,  they  are  obliged  to  walk  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  crawl 
up  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants  in  quest  of  food.  The  larva  is 
58  furnished  with  a  strong,  offensive 

weapon,  which,  in  a  state  of  rest, 
covers  the  face  like  a  mask  (Fig.  58) : 
this,  the  animal  is  capable  of  thrust- 
ing forward  (see  Fig.  59) :  with  the 
forceps  it  seizes  its  prey,  and  immediately  conveys  it  to  the  mouth. 
They  remain  in  the  larva  state  from  autumn  to  the  ensuing  sum- 
mer; when,  having  passed,  with  little  alteration,  to  the  pupa  state, 
they  crawl  up  the  stalk  of  some  aquatic  plant,  and  wait  until  the 
atmosphere  has  so  parched  the  skin,  that  it  splits  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  thorax :  the  insect  then  issues  forth  gradually,  throws 
off  the  slough,  and,  in  a  short  time,  expands  its  wings,  flutters,  and 
flies  away, 

Day  Flies  (Ephemera  vulgata,)  in  their  first  and  intermediate 
state,  are  aquatic:  they  either  live  in  holes  in  the  banks  of  rivers, 
or  brooks,  below  the  water,  so  that  it  enters  into  their  habitations, 
which  they  seldom  quit,  or  swim  about,  or  walk  upon  the  bed 
of  the  stream,  or  conceal  themselves  under  stones  or  pieces  of 
stick.  Though  their  life,  when  they  assume  the  perfect  state, 
is  usually  of  extremely  short  duration, — some  being  disclosed 
13  * 


152  ENTOMOLOGY. 

after  sun-set,  laying  their  eggs  a»d  dying  before  sun-rise,  and 
many  not  living  more  than  three  hours, — yet,  in  their  prepa- 
ratory state,  their  existence  is  much  longer:  some  living  one, 
others,  two,  and  others,  again,  even  three*  years.  The  various 
species  assume  the  imago  at  different  times  of  the  year;  but  the 
same  species  appear  regularly,  at  nearly  the  same  period,  annually; 
and,  for  a  certain  number  of  days,  fill  the  air  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  rivers ;  they  emerge,  also,  from  the  water  at  a  certain  hour  of 
the  day.  The  season  of  different  harvests  is  not  better  known  to 
the  farmer,  than  that  in  which  the  Ephemerae  of  a  particular 
river  are  to  emerge  is  to  the  fisherman ;  yet,  a  greater  degree  of 
heat  or  cold,  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  water,  and  other  circumstances, 
may  accelerate  or  retard  their  appearance.  Between  the  10th  and 
15th  of  August  is  the  time  when  those  of  the  Seine  and  Marne, 
which  Reaumur  described,  are  expected.  He  first  observed  these 
insects  in  the  year  1738,  when  they  did  not  begin  to  show  them- 
selves in  numbers  till  the  18th  of  August.  On  the  19th,  having 
received  notice  from  his  fisherman  that  the  flies  had  appeared, 
he  got  into  his  boat  about  three  hours  before  sun-set,  and  de- 
tached, from  the  bank  of  the  river,  several  masses  of  earth  filled 
with  pupse,  which  he  put  into  a  large  tub  of  water.  Having  re- 
mained in  the  boat  till  about  eight  o'clock,  without  seeing  any 
remarkable  number  of  flies,  and  being  threatened  with  a  storm, 
he  landed,  and  placed  the  tub  in  his  garden,  at  the  foot  of  which 
ran  the  Marne;  an  astonishing  number  of  Ephemerae  soon  made 
their  appearance.  Every  piece  of  earth  above  the  surface  of  the 
water  was  covered  by  them;  some  beginning  to  quit  their  slough, 
others  prepared  to  fly;  besides  these,  many  were  already  on  the 
wing;  and  numbers  might  be  seen  at  all  directions,  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  water,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  forwardness. 
The  storm  coming  on,  he  was  obliged  to  quit  the  amusing  scene; 
but  when  the  rain  ceased,  he  returned  to  it,  and  removed  the 
cloth  with  which  he  had  ordered  the  tub  to  be  covered:  the  num- 
ber of  flies  appeared  to  be  greatly  augmented,  and  kept  continually 
increasing;  many  flew  away,  but  more  were  drowned.  Those 
already  transformed,  and  continually  transforming,  would  have 
been  sufficient,  of  themselves,  to  have  made  the  tub  seem  full; 
but  the  number  was  soon  very  much  enlarged  by  others  attracted 
by  the  light,  which  was  soon  concealed  by  a  layer  of  these  flies 
that  might  have  been  taken  by  handfuls  from  the  candlestick. 
But  the  scene  round  the  tub  was  nothing  to  be  compared  with 
the  wonderful  spectacle  exhibited  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  The 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


153 


exclamations  of  his  gardener  drew  the  illustrious  naturalist  thither: 
such  a  sight  he  had  never  witnessed,  and  could  scarcely  find 
words  to  describe  it.  The  myriads  of  Ephemerae,  says  he,  which 
filled  the  air  above  the  current  of  the  river,  and  over  the  bank 
on  which  I  stood,  are  neither  to  be  expressed  nor  conceived. 
When  the  snow  falls  with  the  largest  flakes,  and  with  the  least 
interval  between  them,  the  air  is  not  so  full  of  them  as  that 
which  surrounded  us  was  of  Ephemerae.  Scarcely  had  I  remained 
in  one  place  a  few  minutes,  when  the  step  on  which  I  stood  was 
quite  concealed  with  a  layer  of  them  from  two  to  four  inches  in 
depth.  Near  the  lowest  step,  a  surface  of  water,  of  five  or  six 
feet  in  dimension  every  way,  was  entirely  and  thickly  covered; 
and  what  the  current  carried  off,  was  continually  replaced.  Many 
times  I  was  obliged  to  abandon  my  station, — not  being  able  to  bear 
the  shower  of  Ephemerae,  which,  falling  with  an  obliquity  less 
constant  than  that  of  an  ordinary  shower,  struck  continually,  and 
in  a  manner  extremely  uncomfortable,  every  part  of  my  face; 
my  eyes,  mouth,  and  nostrils  were  filled  with  them.  To  hold  the 
flambeau,  on  the  occasion,  was  no  pleasant  office.  The  person 
who  held  it  had  his  clothes  covered,  in  a  few  moments,  with  these 
flies,  which  came  from  all  parts  to  overwhelm  him.  Before  ten 
o'clock,  this  interesting  spectacle  had  vanished.  It  was  renewed 
for  some  nights  afterwards,  but  the  flies  were  never  in  such  pro- 
digious numbers.  The  fishermen  allow  only  three  successive  days 
for  the  great  fall  of  these  flies,  which  they  denominate  manna; 
but  a  few  flies  appear  both  before  and  after;  their  number  increas- 
ing in  one  case,  and  in  the  other,  diminishing.  Whatever  be  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  whether  cold  or  hot,  they  inva- 
riably appear  at  the  same  hour  in  the  evening; 
that  is,  between  a  quarter  and  half-past  eight; 
towards  nine,  they  begin  to  fill  the  air;  in  the 
following  half  hour  they  are  in  the  greatest 
number;  aud  at  ten,  there  are  scarcely  any  to 
be  seen:  so  that,  in  less  than  two  hours,  this 
infinite  host  of  flies  emerge  from  their  parent 
gtream,  fill  the  air,  perform  their  appointed 
work,  and  vanish.  A  very  large  portion  of  them  falls  into  the  river, 
\vhen  the  fish  have  their  grand  festival,  and  the  fishermen  a  good 
harvest.  (Fig.  60,  Ephemera  vulgata.) 

The  wings  of  that  beautiful  genus,  Hemerobius,  or  Golden-eye, 
resemble  the  finest  lace;  the  eyes  are  as  brilliant  as  burnished 
gold.  The  larv?e  are  insatiable  devourers  of  the  Aphides;  they 


154  ENTOMOLOGY. 

are  furnished  with  a  pair  of  long,  crooked  mandibles,  resembling 
horns,  which  terminate  in  a  sharp  point,  and,  like  those  of  the 
Ant-lion,  are  perforated,  serving  the  insect  instead  of  a  mouth ;  for 
through  this  orifice  the  nutriment  passes 
down  into  the  stomach.  When  amongst 
the  Aphides,  like  wolves  in  a  sheep- 
fold,  they  make  dreadful  havoc;  half  a 
minute  suffices  them  to  suck  the  largest ; 
and  the  individuals  of  one  species  clothe  themselves,  like  Hercules, 
in  the  spoils  of  their  hapless  victims  (Hemerobius  perla,  fig.  61.) 
The  eggs  of  these  insects  are  very  remarkable, 
being  attached  to  a  filiform  pedicle,  not  thicker 
than  a  hair,  and  seven  or  eight  times  as  long  as 
the  egg ;  the  eggs  are  planted,  in  groupes  of  ten  or 
twelve,  on  the  surface  of  leaves  and  twigs,  pro- 
jecting like  so  many  small  fungi ;  to  some  of  which 
they  have  a  remarkable  resemblance.  (Fig.  62 
represents  the  eggs  attached,  by  the  pedicle,  to  the  leaf  of  a  cur- 
rant-tree.) 

ORDER  IX.— HYMENOPTERA. 

The  larvae  of  the  insects  of  the  family  Tenthredinida,  have 
numerous  feet,  a  round  head,  and,  when  touched,  roll  themselves 
together.  They  all  feed  on  the  leaves  of  plants.  When  full  grown, 
they  make  a  net-work,  or  stronger  case,  according  to  the  time 
63  64  the  insects  remain  in  the  pupa  state, 

(£  sometimes  in  the  earth,  and  sometimes 
jt'  between  the  leaves,  on  the  stem,  or 
branch  of  the  plant  on  which  they  feed 
(Fig.  63,  Trichiosoma  lucorurn,  female; 
fig.  64,  the  cocoon  opened  at  the  top  by 
the  insect.)  We  shall  quote,  from  Mr.  Kirby,  the  following  in- 
teresting account  of  the  mode  in  which  the  female  deposits  her 
eggs: — "  The  young  of  the  Saw-fly  tribe  (Tenthredo, — Linn.)  are 
destined  to  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  rose-trees,  and  various  other 
plants.  Upon  the  branches  of  these  the  parent  fly  deposits  her 
eggs,  in  cells,  symmetrically  arranged;  and  the  instrument,  with 
which  she  forms  them,  is  a  saw,  somewhat  like  ours,  but  far  more 
ingenious  and  perfect,  being  toothed  on  each  side,  or,  rather,  con- 
sisting of  two  distinct  saws  with  their  backs  (the  teeth,  or  serra- 
tures,  of  which  are  themselves  often  serrated,  and  the  exterior 
flat  side  scored  and  toothed,)  which  play  alternately;  and  while 


ENTOMOLOGY.  155 

their  vertical  effect  is  that  of  a  saw,  act  literally  as  a  rasp.  When, 
by  this  alternate  motion,  the  incision,  or  cell  is  made,  the  two  saws, 
receding  from  each  other,  conduct  the  egg  between  them  into  it." 

The  insects  of  the  Ant  tribe  (Formicada,)  live  in  societies 
composed  of  three  sorts  of  individuals,  males  and  females,  winged, 
and  neuters  apterous.  As  indicated  by  the  name,  the  animals  of 
the  group  include  the  primitive  genus,  Formica,  or  the  Ant.  The 
neuters  or  workers,  are  exclusively  employed  in  constructing  or 
preparing  the  habitation  of  the  society;  feeding,  watching,  and 
defending  the  young;  and  in  preserving,  with  care,  the  ova  for 
the  continuance  of  the  species.  The  males  and  females  are  found 
but  temporarily  under  their  last  form  in  the  Ant-hills,  which  they 
leave  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  wings.  The  males  are  much 
smaller  than  the  females,  and  after  they  have  taken  flight,  never 
again  revisit  their  former  dwelling.  The  females,  on  the  contrary, 
bite  off  their  wings,  return,  and  are  retained  by  the  neuters  till  they 
have  deposited  their  ova;  which  are  small,  round,  of  a  whitish 
yellow  colour,  and  laid  in  clusters.  The  larvae  are  like  small  white 
worms;  thick,  short,  of  a  conical  form,  and  destitute  of  feet;  the 
body  is  formed  of  twelve  segments.  The  care  of  feeding  the  larvae 
devolves  on  the  neuters.  They  transport  them,  in  fine  weather, 
to  the  exterior  of  the  habitation,  to  enjoy  a  warm  temperature,  and 
remove  them  again  at  the  approach  of  night:  when  their  dwelling 
is  disturbed,  they  seize  and  carry  them  to  places  of  safety.  The 
pupae  are  similar  to  the  perfect  insects,  but  of  a  soft  consistence, 
whitish  or  yellowish,  inactive,  with  wings  rudimentary,  and  are 
either  naked,  or  inclosed  in  a  silky  cocoon.  When  about  to  under- 
go the  last  change,  the  neuters  tear  open  the  cocoon,  and  set  the 
complete  animal  free;  retaining  those  with  wings,  however,  till 
die  weather  be  favourable  for  their  flight. 

The  greater  part  of  Ant-hills  are  composed  only  of  individuals 
of  one  species.  In  some,  however,  they  are  mixed:  the  neuters 
procuring  supplies  of  population  from  neighbouring  Ant-hills,  by 
expeditions  undertaken  and  executed  with  all  the  precision  of 
military  detail.  If  victors  in  the  contest,  they  carry  off  the  larvae, 
or  pupae,  from  the  community  they  attack ;  and  when  the  captured 
insects  arrive  at  their  perfect  state,  they  either  join  in  the  labours 
of  their  captors,  as  in  the  mixed  societies  of  the  F.  sanguinea;  or, 
sometimes,  they  are  doomed  to  do  the  whole  labour  of  the  com- 
munity, as  among  the  Amazon  Ants,  the  neuters  of  which  confine 
themselves  to  the  defence  of  the  habitation. 

The  form  and  the  nature  of  the  different  habitations  of  Ants, 


156  ENTOMOLOGY. 

vary  according  to  the  species;  but,  in  general,  they  are  much 
more  simple  than  those  of  other  insects  which  live  in  socie- 
ties. Some  species  lodge  in  old  wood,  which  they  hollow  into 
labyrinths;  others  have  their  dwellings  under  the  ground;  while 
many  rear  their  habitations  above  the  surface,  in  the  shape  of 
cones,  more  or  less  elevated ;  composed  not  only  of  earth  and 
sand,  but  of  wood,  leave.s,  and  other  substances  within  their  reach. 
65  In  all  these  habitations,  different  roads,  or 

galleries,  are  constructed,  leading  to  a  natural 
cavity,  the  chief  abode  of  the  family.  Fruits,  in- 
sects, or  the  larvae,  and  often  the  dead  remains 
of  quadrupeds,  or  birds,  form  the  food  of  Ants ; 
and  if  they  appear  hurtful  to  vegetation,  in 
some  instances,  by  destroying  fruit  or  plants 
in  the  formation  of  their  subterraneous  galleries,  they  are  not  less 
useful  in  another  point  of  view  (Formica  Herculanea,  fig.  65.) 

Wasps  (Vespadte,)  like  the  Bees,  live  in  societies;  and  are 
almost  equally  remarkable  for  their  industry  and  the  structure  of 
their  common  dwellings.  But  the  Bee  gathers  its  food  solely  from 
flowers;  its  sting  being  only  used  as  a  defensive  weapon  against 
the  attacks  of  its  enemies,  while  in  the  Wasp,  the  sting  is  offen- 
sive, and  calculated  for  its  predatory  and  ferocious  course  of  life. 

Among  the  insects  of  this  genus  may  be  remarked  the  Hornet, 
which  forms  its  dwelling  in  the  holes  of  old  walls,  or  the  hollows 
of  decayed  trees.  In  the  latter  case,  these  insects  enlarge  the 
cavity,  by  detaching  fragments  of  the  decayed  wood.  The  females, 
having  passed  the  winter  in  torpidity,  on  the  approach  of  the  warm 
season,  seek  a  place  for  the  establishment  of  the  colony,  and  com- 
mence operations,  by  building  a  thick  and  solid  pillar  of  the  same 
substance  as  the  other  parts  of  the  nest,  but  much  harder  and 
more  compact.  The  matter,  of  which  this  is  formed,  consists, 
generally,  of  the  bark  of  the  ash,  detached  in  filaments,  and 
ground,  by  their  mandibles,  into  a  kind  of  paste,  which  hardens 
as  the  work  goes  on.  This  post,  or  pillar,  is  always  placed  in 
the  most  elevated  part  of  the  vault ;  attached  to  it  is  a  kind  of 
cupola,  or  roof,  of  the  same  materials,  which  protects  their  combs 
from  above.  Within  this  vault  they  place  a  second  column,  in 
some  respects  a  continuation  of  the  first,  which  forms  the  base  of 
the  first  row  of  the  cells  of  the  combs.  These  cells  are  hexagonal, 
and  their  openings  turned  downward.  In  spring,  only,  the  female 
Wasps  of  the  past  year  are  seen;  they  commence  depositing  their 
ova  as  soon  as  their  cells  are  ready.  These  ova  are  soon  hatched ; 


ENTOMOLOGY.  157 

and  when  the  larva  acquires  sufficient  size,  it  lines  its  cell  with  a 
silky  substance,  and  remains  in  this  covering  until  its  metamor- 
phosis is  completed:  it  then  quits  the  cell  in  its  perfect  state. 
The  insects  which  first  appear  are  the  workers ;  and  analogy  has 
led  to  the  belief,  that  these  are,  as  among  the  Bees,  females  destitute 
of  ovaries.  They  occupy  themselves  in  the  construction  of  the 
dwelling,  and  in  feeding  the  larvae.  The  female  continues  to 
deposit  her  ova;  the  family  increases  in  number;  the  envelope 
of  the  comb  is  enlarged;  and,  when  completed,  other  pillars  are 
formed,  connected  with  the  first,  until  the  whole  cavity  is  filled, 
except  an  entrance  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  Towards  the  be- 
ginning of  autumn,  the  young  males  and  females  acquire  their 
perfect  form ;  and  all  the  larvae  which  have  not  gone  through  their 
transformation  before  October,  perish  from  cold  and  want  of  food ; 
for  the  Wasps  cease  to  feed  them  after  this  period,  and  even 
throw  them  out  of  the  nest. 

The  common  Wasp  makes  its  nest  in  the  ground,  generally 
about  six  inches  deep,  of  a  circular  form,  and  about  thirteen  inches 
in  diameter.  The  entrance  measures  about  an  inch  across.  The 
envelope  is  of  a  grayish  colour,  a  papyraceous  consistence,  and 
sometimes  of  nearly  an  inch  in  thickness,  with  two  round  holes 
for  entrances.  The  interior  is  occupied  by  many  parallel  and 
nearly  horizontal  combs,  resembling  those  of  the  Bees  in  form, 
but  of  different  material.  These  combs,  to  the  amount  of  fifteen 
or  sixteen,  are  arranged  in  stages,  with  intervals  between  them, 
and  supported,  in  these  intervals,  by  columns.  The  edifice  is  begun 
at  the  top,  and  increased  downward.  The  community  is  formed 
of  males,  females,  and  workers,  or  neuters;  the  last  of  these,  as 
among  the  Bees,  do  all  the  work;  they  are  continually  on  the 
wing,  in  search  of  food,  destroying  fruits,  provisions,  and  even 
smaller  insects.  A  nest  full  of  combs  generally  consists  of  fifteen 
or  sixteen  thousand  cells,  of  which  each  contains  an  ovum,  or 
pupa;  and  the  larvae  are  fed,  as  the  small  birds  feed  their  young, 
with  the  food  brought  to  the  hive,  after  being  macerated  in  the 
mouth  of  the  mother.  About  twenty  days  after  the  ova  have 
been  deposited,  the  larvae  are  ready  for  their  metamorphosis  into 
pupae.  These,  inclosed  in  their  cells,  become  perfect  insects  in 
the  course  of  eight  or  nine  days;  and  the  cells  being  then  cleared 
out  by  the  industrious  community,  are  fit  for  the  reception  of 
the  ova  for  a  new  race.  Like  the  Hornets,  the  greater  part  of 
the  Wasps  perish  in  autumn.  Some  femak-s,  destined  to  per- 
petuate the  species,  pass  the  winter  in  torpidity;  and,  in  the 


158 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


following  spring,  each  becomes  the  founder  of  a  new  republic,  of 
all  the  individuals  of  which  she  is  the  mother.  The  neuters, 
being  most  useful,  are  first  hatched;  the 
males  and  females  not  appearing  till  to- 
ward the  end  of  summer  and  the  com- 
mencement of  autumn.  The  males  are 
smaller  than  the  females,  and  larger  than 
the  neuters,  and,  like  the  same  class  among 
the  Bees,  are  destitute  of  a  sting.  The 
inflammation  and  swelling,  arising  from 
the  sting  of  the  Wasp,  are  more  violent  than  when  produced  by 
the  sting  of  the  Bee.  (Fig.  66,  Vespa  Crabro,  the  Hornet.) 

Bees  are  distinguished  from  the  other  Hymenopterous  insects 
by  the  elongation  of  their  jaws  and  lip,  in  the  form  of  a  slender 
proboscis,  terminating,  generally,  in  a  downy  or  silky  point  of  the 
Jabrum.  This  last  part,  at  the  point  where  it  leaves  its  semi- 
tubular  sheath  and  the  jaws  at  the  insertion  of  the  palpi,  is  geni- 
culate,  and  folded  below  in  such  a  manner,  that  in  the  species 
where  these  pieces  are  longest,  the  spurious  trunk  extends  along 
the  breast.  The  maxillary  palpi  are  generally  very  short,  almost 
setaceous,  or  conical,  and  consist  of  from  one  to  six  joints;  the 
labial  are  larger,  and  have  four  joints.  The  Apiariae  resemble  the 
other  HYMENOPTERA  with  stings,  in  the  general  form  of  their 
bodies.  All  have  four  wings,  with  one  radial  areola  (or  wing  cell,) 
two  or  three  cubital  areolae,  and  two  recurrent  nerves  in  the  upper 
wings.  The  abdomen  is  armed  with  a  concealed  sting;  and,  in  the 
females  and  neuters,  is  composed  of  six  segments:  the  males  have 
an  additional  segment;  it  is,  generally  of  an  ovoid  form,  attached  to 
the  thorax  by  a  very  short  pedicle.  The  posterior  pair  of  feet  are 
largest;  they  are  very  remarkable,  in  the  females  and  neuters,  for 
the  numerous  hairs  and  down  with  which  the  legs  anrl  the  first 
joint  of  the  tarsi  are  furnished.  These  insects  fly  with  rapidity, 
and  with  a  humming  noise,  from  flower  to  flower,  for  the  purpose 
of  extracting,  by  means  of  their  proboscis,  which  they  elongate 
and  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  corolla,  the  honey  of  the  nectaries. 
They  collect  the  pollen,  or  fine  dust  of  the  stamina,  upon  their  pos- 
terior legs.  This  pollen,  mixed  with  a  little  honey,  forms  the  food 
of  the  larvae.  The  body  of  the  larva  is  oblong,  narrowed  at  both 
extremities,  soft,  divided  into  twelve  segments,  and  without  feet; 
the  head  is  small  and  scaly;  it  has  the  appearance  of  eyes,  man- 
dibles, jaws  and  lips;  and,  on  each  side,  nine  stigmatae.  After 
having  acquired  their  full  size,  the  larvae  spin  a  cocoon,  in  which 


ENTOMOLOGY.  159 

they  are  changed  into  pupae.  In  all  the  solitary  Apiariae  of  tem- 
perate climates,  the  pupae  do  not  undergo  their  last  transformation 
till  the  following  year. 

The  societies  of  Bees  include  three  kinds  of  individuals: — the 
workers,  or  neuters,  forming  the  greater  portion  of  the  population ; 
the  males,  or  drones,  in  limited  number;  and  the  females,  of 
which  there  is  generally  but  one  in  each,  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Queen  Bee.  The  workers  and  the  females  are  armed  with  a 
sting ;  and  Mr.  Huber,  junior,  has  remarked  a  difference  among 
the  workers ;  the  largest  being  destined  for  out-door  employment, 
and  the  smaller  busying  themselves  in  cleaning  the  cells  and 
feeding  the  larvae  within.  Of  the  number  of  Bees  in  a  hive,  con- 
sisting of  from  15,000  to  30,000,  the  males,  or  drones,  form  a 
portion  to  the  extent  of  200  to  1,000,  or  upwards;  the  queen,  or 
female  Bee,  one:  the  remainder  are  neuters,  or  workers.  The 
female  deposits  a  great  number  of  ova  each  day  in  spring,  the 
cells  for  which  are  prepared  by  the  workers;  and  the  depo- 
sition of  ova  ceases  in  autumn,  because  then  the  pollen  of  flowers, 
for  the  support  of  the  larvae,  fails.  The  individuals  first  produced 
are  all  workers;  about  the  end  of  two  months  the  ova  of  the 
males  are  laid,  and,  afterwards,  those  for  the  females,  which  are 
all  deposited  in  corresponding  cells.  The  ova  are  of  an  oval, 
elongated  form,  slightly  bent,  of  a  bluish  white  colour,  about  a 
line  long;  they  are  hatched  in  the  course  of  three,  four,  five, 
or  six  days,  according  to  the  temperature.  The  larvae  produced 
from  these  ova,  are  small,  wrinkled,  white  worms,  without  feet ; 
and  they  are  fed  by  the  workers,  who  visit  each  cell  for  this 
purpose  with  their  food.  The  cells  not  occupied  by  the  larvae 
are  filled  with  honey.  The  combs  are  placed  parallel  to  one 
another,  and  the  cells,  of  which  they  are  composed,  are  of  an  hex- 
agonal form,  constructed  with  much  art  and  regularity. 

The  number  of  Bees  in  a  hive  soon  increases  so  much,  that 
emigration  becomes  necessary,  and  swarms  leave  the  parent-hive 
to  form  other  establishments.  In  these  cases,  a  new  hive  is  pre- 
pared for  the  colony;  and  many  means  are  used  to  direct  the 
attention  of  the  emigrants  to  their  new  dwelling.  When  deprived 
of  a  queen,  another  is  soon  produced  by  the  workers,  who  rear 
one  of  their  own  larvae  for  this  purpose,  which,  by  a  particular 
treatment,  becomes  a  female.  At  a  certain  period  of  the  year 
the  males  are  put  to  death,  with  all  their  pupae  and  larvae. 

Bees  are  found  in  a  natural  state  in  the  forests  of  Russia, 
14 


160  ENTOMOLOGY. 

and  in  different  parts  of  Asia,  occupying  cavities  in  trees,  &c. 
They  have  many  enemies,  such  as  mice  and  rats,  among  the 
mammalia;  the  swallow,  and  other  insectivorous  birds,  among 
the  feathered  tribes;  and  Wasps  and  Ants,  among  the  insects. 
They  are  also  subject  to  many  diseases.  The  duration  of  the  life 
of  Bees  is  not  known  with  certainty.  Virgil  and  Pliny  give  seven 
years  as  the  term,  and  others  extend  it  to  ten;  but  of  five  hundred 
Bees,  which  Reaumur  marked  with  red  varnish,  in  the  month  of 
April,  not  one  was  found  living  in  November.  By  a  succession  of 
generations,  however,,  hives  have  been  preserved  for  upwards  of 
twenty-five  years.  The  honey  stored  up  by  the  Bees,  is  for  their 
supply  in  winter,  or  unfavourable  weather;  and  this  is  more  or 
less  exhausted  as  the  winter  is  mild  and  open,  or  the  reverse. 
In  severe  cold,  the  inhabitants  of  the  hive  remain  in  a  state  of 
torpor. 

Wax,  so  valuable  for  many  minor  purposes,  and  deemed,  with 
us,  so  indispensable  to  the  comfort  of  the  great,  is  of  still  more 
importance  in  those  parts  of  Europe  and  America,  in  which  it 
forms  a  considerable  branch  of  trade  and  manufacture,  as  an 
article  of  extensive  use  in  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  inha- 
bitants. Humboldt  informs  us,  that  not  fewer  than  25,000  arrobas, 
the  value  of  which  is  upwards  of  £83,000,  are  annually  exported 
from  Cuba  to  New  Spain,  where  the  quantity  consumed  in  the 
festivals  of  the  church  is  immense,  even  in  the  smallest  villages ; 
and  that  the  total  export  of  the  same  island,  in  1803,  was  not 
less  than  42,670  arrobas,  worth  upwards  of  X' 130,000.  Honey, 
the  other  well-known  product  of  these  insects,  has  lost  much  of 
its  importance  since  the  discovery  of  sugar ;  but,  in  many  inland 
parts  of  Europe,  where  its  saccharine  substitute  is  much  dearer 
than  with  us,  few  articles  of  rural  economy,  not  of  primary  im- 
portance, would  be  dispensed  with  more  reluctantly.  In  the 
Ukraine,  some  of  the  peasants  have  four  or  five  hundred  Bee- 
hives, and  make  more  profit  of  their  Bees  than  their  corn.  In 
Spain,  the  number  of  Bee-hives  is  said  to  be  incredible;  a  single 
parish  priest  has  been  known  to  possess  five  thousand. 

Bees  extract  honey  from  most  plants ;  but  there  are  some,  of 
which  they  are  particularly  fond;  such  as  the  Echium,  Borago, 
Verbascum,  Syrpyllum,  and  the  Tetradynamia :  they  are,  also, 
fond  of  the  Rhus  glabrum,  and  the  Asclepias  Syriaca,  on  which 
they  sit  without  humming.  In  some  countries  they  attach  them- 
selves to  particular  plants:  for  instance, — in  Sweden,  and  the 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


161 


Highlands  of  Scotland,  to  the  Erica;  in  Scania,  to  the  Buck- 
wheat; in  Poland,  to  the  Lime-tree:  in  Nar- 
bonne,  to  the  Rosemary;  in  Greece,  to  tire 
Thyme;  in  Corsica,  to  the  Arbutus;  in  Sar- 
dinia, to  the  Absinthium;  in  Pontus,  to  the 
Aconitum,  &c.  Hence  arise  the  different 
flavour  and  quality  of  honey.  (Apis  mellifica, 
Honey  Bee,  fig.  67.) 
We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  second  section,  HAUSTELLATA, 

which  comprises  those  insects  with  imperfect  mouths. 

ORDER  X.— HEMIPTERA. 

The  Cimices,  or  Bugs ;  the  Nepa,  or  Water  Scorpion ;  and 
the  Notonecta,  or  Boat  Flies,  are  insects  of  this  order.  The 
family  of  Cimices  has  been  divided  into  many  genera:  the  Nepa 
and  Notonecta  are  aquatic. 

Cimex  lectularius  (the  Bed  Bug,)  though  now  too  common  and 
well  known  in  this  country,  was  formerly  a  rare  insect.  Had  it  not 
been  so,  two  noble  ladies,  mentioned  by  Mouffet,  would  scarcely 
have  been  thrown  into  violent  agitation  and  alarm,  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  Bug-bites  upon  them ;  which,  until  their  fears  were 
dispelled  by  their  physician,  who  happened  to  be  a  naturalist,  they 
considered  to  be  nothing  less  than  symptoms  of  the  plague.  Being 
shown  the  living  cause  of  their  fright,  their  fears  gave  place  to  mirth. 

Pentatoma  prasinus  (Fig.  68)  which  inhabits  the  oak,  hazel,  and 
white-thorn,  during  the  autumn  months;  and  Coreus  marginatus 
(Fig.  27,)  which  is  found  in  hedges,  in  May  and  June,  feed  on  the 
larva?  of  the  LEPIDOPTERA,  by  sucking  their  juices. 

68  69  70 


The  Water  Scorpion  (Nepa  cenerea,  fig.  69,)  inhabits  ponds 
and  ditches,  and  is  of  a  most  savage  disposition;  seeming  to  love 
destruction  for  its  own  sake.  Mr.  Kirby  says,  that  one  which  was 
put  into  a  basin  of  water  with  several  young  Tadpoles,  killed  them 
all  without  attempting  to  eat  one. 

The  common  Boat  Fly  (Notonectea  glauca,  fig.  70,)  swims  on  its 


162  ENTOMOLOGY. 

back :  it  may  be  found  in  most  ponds.;  the  posterior  feet  are  fringed, 
and  well  adapted  to  the  water.  This  insect  is  capable  of  thrusting 
its  rostrum  into  the  hand,  and  causing  a  pain  similar  to  the  in- 
sertion of  a  hot  needle,  but  which  passes  off,  in  a  few  minutes 

ORDER  XI OMOPTERA. 

The  larvae,  or  grubs,  of  the  Cicada  spumaria,  are  well  known, 
as  discharging  from  their  bodies,  upon  the  branches  and  leaves 
of  plants,  a  kind  of  frothy  matter,  called,  by  the  country  people 
in  many  parts  of  England,  Cuckoo-spit.  In  the  midst  of  this 
they  constantly  reside;  probably,  for  shelter  against  the  rapacity 
of  such  stronger  insects  as  would,  otherwise,  prey  upon  them. 
Nature  seems  to  have  afforded  them  this  kind  of  defence,  as 
their  naked  and  soft  bodies  might,  otherwise,  be  very  easily 
injured:  perhaps,  also,  the  moisture  of  this  foam  may  serve  to 
screen  them  from  the  sultry  beams  of  the  sun.  When  unco- 
vered, the  insect  soon  emits  fresh  foam,  which  again  hides  it 
from  the  eye  of  observation.  In  this  the  larva  goes  through  the 
metamorphosis  to  a  chrysalis  and  a  winged  insect;  as  any  person, 
who  is  careful  enough  to  watch  when  the  froth  begins  to  subside 
a  little,  may  perceive.  For  this  purpose,  the  insect,  with  its 
leaf,  must  be  placed  under  a  glass.  The  froth,  degenerating  to  a 
white  film,  fixes  the  creature  to  the  leaf:  the  fly  may  soon  after 
be  seen,  first  putting  out  its  head,  and  then,  by  degrees,  its  body. 
When  the  fore-part  is  out,  a  small  protuberance  will  be  per- 
ceptible on  each  side,  which,  every  moment,  growing  larger,  will 
soon  appear  to  be  the  wings  of  the  fly  gradually  unfolding  them- 
selves. The  whole  change  is  usually  completed  in  about  a  quarter 
of  an  hour;  the  fly  then  extends  its  wings  over  its  body,  and 
entirely  quits  the  fine  silver-like  case  of  the  larva,  with  all  its 
71  legs  and  other  apparatus.  The  perfect  insect  is  of  a  brown 

f  colour,  and  has,  on  the  upper  wings,  two  lateral  whitish 
spots.      It  is   very  common   in  meadows  and  pastures,  and 
is  so  agile,  that,  when  in  danger  of  being  caught,  it  will 
sometimes  spring  to  the  distance  of  two  or  three  feet  (Fig.  71.) 

^  72  ^  One  of  the  most  elegant  British  insects  of  the 

order,  is  the  Cercopis  sanguinolenta  (Fig.  72,) 
which  is  found  in  woods,  during  the  month 
of  June.  Many  of  the  Cicadas  are  very  large ; 
more  especially  those  of  India.  We  are  in- 
debted to  Mr.  D.  Bydder  for  the  discovery,  in  this  country,  of  a 
musical  species  of  this  family,  which  was  found  by  that  gentleman 


ENTOMOLOGY.  163 

in  the  New  Forest,  Hampshire:  this  species  makes  a  loud  chir- 
ruping noise,  and  may  be  heard  at  some  distance.  In  South 
America  and  New  Holland  the  species  are  generally  denominated 
Razor-grinders,  from  their  harsh  discordant  sounds ;  and  in  North 
America  there  is  one  species  (Tettigonia  Hsematodes,  fig.  73) 
that  appears  in  profusion  once  in  seventeen  years,  and  makes 
73  such  a  continual  din,  from  morning  to 

evening,  that  people  cannot  hear  each 
other  speak.  The  noise  made  is  peculiar 
to  the  male  insect,  and  is  produced  by  a 
pair  of  large  plates,  of  an  irregular  form, 
covering  the  anterior  part  of  the  belly, 
and  fixed  to  the  trunk,  between  the  abdomen  and  the  hind  legs. 

The  insects  of  the  genus  Aphis  are  small  and  defenceless, 
but  very  noxious :  their  history  and  manners  are  most  remarkable. 
There  are  many  species  of  the  genus  which,  for  the  most  part, 
inhabit  particular  plants;  attaching  themselves,  generally,  to  the 
young  twigs,  the  foot-stalks  or  leaves,  and  exhausting  the  juices, 
by  which  means  these  parts,  especially  the  leaves,  are  deformed 
and  destroyed.  Most  plants  have  their  peculiar  Aphides;  but 
some  species  are  not  restricted  to  a  single  sort,  but 
prey  on  several.  The  species  are,  with  difficulty,  dis- 
tinguished;  and,  with  still  more  difficulty,  defined. 
Linnseus  has  described  but  few,  and  has  contented 
himself  with  mentioning  the  plants  on  which  they  are 
found.  One  of  the  causes  of  blight  is  attributed  to  these  insects. 
(Fig.  74.) 

ORDER  XII.— TRICHOPTERA. 

The  insects  of  the  twelfth  order,  during  their  larva  state,  are 
aquatic ;  and,  consequently,  the  perfect  insects  are  always  found 
near  water,  in  which  the  females  deposit  their  eggs.  The  wings 
of  this  order  are  covered  with  hair;  and  the  smaller  species  so 
greatly  resemble  some  of  the  Tineas,  that,  without  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  insects,  they  might  be  considered  as  such. 
Their  singular  larvae,  also,  in  many  respects,  bear  a  close  analogy 
to  the  Tineae ;  more  especially  to  that  group  to  which  die  Clothes- 
Moth  belongs.  We  beg  leave  to  quote  Messrs.  Kirby  and  Spence's 
account  of  the  manners  of  these  insects;  illustrating  it  with 
figures  of  the  cases  to  which  those  gentlemen  refer: — "  If  you  be 
desirous  of  examining  the  insects  to  which  I  am  alluding,  you 
have  only  to  place  yourself  by  the  side  of  a  clear  and  shallow 
pool  of  water,  and  you  cannot  fail  to  observe,  at  the  bottom, 
14* 


164  ENTOMOLOGY. 

little  oblong,  moveable  masses,  resembling  pieces  of  straw,  wood, 
or  even  stone :  these  are  the  larvae  in  question,  well  known  to 
fishermen  by  the  title  of  Caddis-worms;  and  which,  if  you  take 
them  out  of  the  water,  you  will  observe  to  inhabit  cases  of  a  very 
singular  conformation.  Of  the  larva  itself,  which  somewhat 
resembles  the  Caterpillars  of  many  LEPIDOPTERA,  nothing  is  to 
be  seen  but  the  head  and  six  legs,  by  means  of  which  it  moves 
itself  in  the  water,  and  drags  after  it  the  case  in  which  the  rest 
of  the  body  is  inclosed,  and  into  which,  on  any  alarm,  it  wholly 
retires.  The  construction  of  these  habitations  is  very  various. 
Some  select  four  or  five  pieces  of  the  leaves  of  grass,  which  they 
glue  together  into  a  shapely  polygonal  case;  others  employ  por- 
tions of  the  stems  of  rushes,  placed  side  by  side,  so  as  to  form  an 
elegant  fluted  cylinder ;  some  arrange  round  them  pieces  of  leaves, 
like  a  spirally-rolled  ribbon;  others  inclose  themselves  in  a  mass 
of  the  leaves  of  any  aquatic  plants,  united  without  regularity;  and 
others,  again,  form  their  abode  of  minute  pieces  of  wood,  either 
fresh  or  decayed.  One,  like  the  Sabella,  forms  a  horn-shaped  case, 
composed  of  grains  of  sand,  so  equal  in  size,  and  so  nicely  and 
regularly  gummed  together, — the  sides,  throughout,  being  of  the 
thickness  of  one  grain  only, — that  the  first  time  I  viewed  it,  I 
could  scarcely  persuade  myself  it  could  be  the  work  of  an  insect. 
The  case  of  P.  Cimaculata,  which  is  less  artificially  constructed, 
of  a  mixture  of  mud  and  sand,  is  pyriform,  and  has  its  end 
curiously  stopped  by  a  plate,  formed  of  grains  of  sand,  with  a 
central  aperture.  Other  species  construct  houses,  which  may  be 
called  alive,  forming  them  of  the  shells  of  various  aquatic  snails, 
of  different  kinds  and  sizes,  even  while  inhabited ;  all  of  which  are 
immoveably  fixed  to  it,  and  dragged  about  at  its  pleasure, — a 
covering  as  singular  as  that  of  a  savage,  who,  instead  of  clothing 
himself  with  squirrels'  skins,  should  sew  together,  into  a  coat,  the 
animals  themselves.  (  Vide  Figs.  75,  76,  77,  78,  and  79.) 

75  76  77  78  79 


"  However  various  may  be  the  form  of  the  case,  externally, 
within  it  is  usually  cylindrical  and  lined  with  silk;  and  though 
seldom  apparently  wider  than  just  to  admit  the  body  of  the  insect, 


ENTOMOLOGY.  165 

gome  species  have  the  power  of  turning  round  in  it,  and  putting 
out  their  heads  at  either  end.  Some  larvae  constantly  make  their 
cases  of  the  same  materials ;  others  employ,  indifferently,  any  that 
are  at  hand;  and  the  new  ones  that  they  construct,  as  they  in- 
crease in  size  (for  they  have  not  the  faculty,  like  the  larvae  of  the 
Moth,  of  enlarging  them,)  have,  often,  an  appearance  quite  dis- 
similar to  that  of  the  old.  Even  those  that  are  the  most  careless 
about  the  nature  of  the  materials  of  their  house,  are  solicitously 
attentive  to  one  circumstance  respecting  them;  namely, — their 
specific  gravity.  Not  having  the  power  of  swimming,  but  only  of 
walking  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  by  aid  of  the  six  legs  attached 
to  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  which  is  usually  protruded  out  of  the 
case,  and  the  insect  itself  being  heavier  than  water,  it  is  of  great 
importance  that  its  house  should  be  of  a  specific  gravity  so  nearly 
that  of  the  element  in  which  it  resides,  as,  while  in  walking,  it 
should  not  be  incommoded  by  its  weight  or  too  great  buoyancy; 
and  it  is  as  essential  that  it  should  be  so  equally  ballasted  in  every 
part  as  to  be  readily  rnoveable  in  any  position.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances our  Caddis-worms  evince  their  proficiency  in  hydro- 
statics; selecting  the  most  suitable  substances;  and, 
if  the  cell  be  too  heavy,  gluing  tightly  a  bit  of  leaf, 
or  straw;  or,  if  too  light,  a  shell,  or  piece  of  gravel. 
It  is  from  this  necessity  of  regulating  the  specific 
gravity,  that  to  the  cases,  formed  with  the  greatest 
regularity,  we  often  see  attached  a  seemingly  su- 
perfluous piece  of  wood,  leaf,  or  the  like."  (Fig.  80  is  the  perfect 
insect  of  Phrygania  grandis.) 

ORDER    XIII.— LEPIDOPTERA. 

The  mouth,  in  this  order,  is  formed  of  a  conical,  or  subulate 
labrum,  often  scarcely  perceptible;  of  two  horny,  very  small,  and 
rudimentary  mandibles;  two  elongated,  horny  jaws,  in  the  form 
of  tubular  filaments,  fixed  below,  as  far  as  the  origin  of  the  palpi, 
with  a  lip  similarly  fixed,  and  uniting  by  the  internal  margin,  so 
as  to  form  a  trunk,  which  is  rolled  up  in  a  spiral  form  when  in  a 
state  of  repose:  the  interior  of  this  trunk  contains  three  canals. 
The  maxillary  palpi  are  two  in  number,  and  often  indistinct.  The 
lip  is  one  flat  and  triangular  piece.  The  four  wings  are  covered  with 
very  small  scales,  easily  detached,  and  resembling  a  fine  powder: 
at  the  base  of  each  of  the  upper  wings  is  an  appendage,  prolonged 
backwards,  which  is  termed  tegula,  or  pterygoda;  the  presence 
of  this  appendage  forms  one  of  the  distinctive  characters  of  the 


166  ENTOMOLOGY. 

order.  The  wings  appear  membranaceous  and  simply  veined, 
when  the  dust,  by  which  they  are  covered,  is  removed.  In  many 
species,  a  portion,  more  or  less  large,  of  the  wings  is  naked  and 
transparent;  the  scales  are  fixed  by  means  of  a  pedicle,  with 
great  symmetry,  like  the  tiles  of  a  roof:  their  forms  are  various, 
very  often  triangular,  with  the  upper  lobe  broad  and  dentated ; 
the  colours  are  equally  diversified,  and  often  extremely  brilliant. 
The  head  is  furnished,  in  addition  to  the  two  ordinary  eyes,  with  two 
ocelli,  placed  on  each  side,  near  the  internal  margin  of  the  others. 
The  thorax  is  formed  of  three  segments,  intimately  united, — the 
second,  or  meso-thorax,  being  the  largest.  The  scutellum  is  tri- 
angular: the  antennae  are  composed  of  numerous  joints;  in  the 
Diurnae  or  (Butterflies  which  fly  by  day,)  they  are  always  simple, 
and  thickest  at  the  extremity;  and  in  the  nocturnal  species,  the 
antennae  are  filiform,  simple,  serrated,  or  pectinated.  All  the  tarsi 
have  five  joints;  the  metamorphosis,  in  this  order,  is  complete. 
The  females  deposit  their  ova,  which  are  often  very  numerous, 
on  vegetable  substances;  upon  these,  when  hatched,  the  larvae, 
which  are  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Caterpillars,  feed: 
they  have  six  scaly,  or  hooked  feet,  and  from  four  to  ten  mem- 
branous ones;  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis,  is  in  the  form  of  a  mummy, 
or  covered  with  a  coriaceous  skin,  through  which  the  exterior 
parts  of  the  animal  are  distinguished.  The  bodies  of  these  larvae 
are,  in  general,  elongated,  almost  cylindrical,  and  variously  coloured ; 
sometimes  rough,  with  hairs,  or  spines ;  and  composed,  besides 
the  head,  of  twelve  segments,  with  nine  stigmatge  on  each  side; 
the  head  is  covered  with  a  horny  skin. 

The  Papilio  Machaon  (Fig.  81)  is  black  and  yellow;   hinder 
xvings  tailed;   edges  of  the  wings   black,  with  yellow  crescents; 

the  tips  of  the  hinder  ones 
with  a  red  spot  at  their 
inferior  tips.  It  inhabits 
Europe,  and  the  larvae  feed 
on  umbelliferous  plants. 
In  England  it  is  called  the 
Swallow-tailed  Butterfly. 
It  is  very  local,  occurring 
near  Bristol,  Beverly  in 
Yorkshire,  and,  plentifully, 
in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire.  It  is  the  most  superb  of  all  the 
British  species  of  this  family.  The  Caterpillar  is  green,  banded 
with  black,  and  marked  by  a  row  of  red  spots.  It  changes  into 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


167 


a  chrysalis  state  in  July ;  and  the  fly  is  found  throughout  August : 
a  previous  brood,  which  appears  in  May,  having  lain  in  a  pupa 
state  all  the  winter.  The  Caterpillar  is  tentaculated,  fleshy,  and 
furcate;  it  feeds  on  the  wild  carrot,  and  is  found  in  the  fens  of 
Lincolnshire  and  Cambridgeshire. 

The  wings  of  the  male  Gonepteryx  Rhamni  are  yellow ;    those 
of  the  female,  whitish,  with  a  fulvous  spot  on  each.      The  Cater- 
82  pillar  feeds  on  the  buckthorn ;  it  is  of  a  green 

colour,  with  a  darker  line  along  the  back ;  the 
pupa  is  gibbous,  accuminated  before ;  suspend- 
ed, in  a  vertical  position,  on  a  perpendicular 
branch,  with  a  thread  of  silk  wound  about  its 
middle,  as  a  support.      The  Butterfly  is  found 
from  April  to  June.    When  produced  in  August 
it  remains  during  the  winter,  and  appears  early  in  spring  (Fig.  82.) 
The  wings  of  the  Clouded  Yellow  Butterfly  (Colias  Edusa, 
83  /  fig.  83,)   are  of  an  orange  colour,  with 

black  margins ;  they  are  greenish  on  the 
inner  side,  with  a  black  spot  on  the  ante- 
rior, and  a  silvery  spot  on  the  posterior 
wings.  It  inhabits  Europe,  and  occurs 
in  England  once  in  three  years;  during 
some  seasons,  only  locally;  in  others,  in  the  greatest  profusion 
in  every  part  of  the  country.  There  is  a  pale-coloured  variety 
which  has  been  considered  a  distinct  species.  Colias  Hyale  has 
been  lately  taken  near  Brighton,  and  also  at  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
but  is  a  very  rare  insect. 

Pontia  Cratregi   (the  Black-veined  White,  fig.  84,)  has  white 
wings,  with  a  faint  tinge  of  yellow,  and  black  nervures.      It  inhabits 

Europe.  The  Caterpillars 
are  hairy  and  yellowish; 
they  live,  in  societies,  on 
the  white  -  thorn :  during 
the  winter  they  are  rolled 
up  in  dry  leaves,  and  come 
out  early  in  the  spring  to 
feed  on  the  young  foliage. 
About  the  end  of  May  they 
go  into  the  pupa  state;  in  which  they  remain  for  three  weeks, 
when  the  perfect  insect  appears  (Fig.  85,  the  Chrysalis.)  To  this 
genus  belong  the  P.  Brassicae  (the  Large  White  Cabbage  Butter- 
fly) ;  P.  Rapae  (the  Small  Cabbage  Butterfly) ;  P.  Napi  (Green- 


168  ENTOMOLOGY. 

veined  White) ;  P.  Daplidke  (the  Bath  White,)  the  rarest  of  this 
genus,  which  was  first  discovered  at  Bath;  it  appears,  also,  to 
be  frequent  at  Dover.  P.  Sinapis  (the  Wood 
White,)  which  is  found  in  woods,  also  belongs 
to  this  genus;  and  P.  Cnrdatnines  (Fig.  86, 
the  Orange-tip  Butterfly.)  Several  others  have 
lately  been  described  as  species,  which  appear 
to  us  to  be  only  varieties 

The  wings  of  the  Melitaea  Euphrosyne  (Pearly  Border)  are 
indented,  tawny,  with  black  spots  on  the  upper,  and  nine  silvery 
spots  on  the  under  side.  It  inhabits  Europe,  and  appears  only 
in  April.  The  Caterpillar  feeds  on  the  Viola  montana:  it  is 
black  and  spiny,  with  two  orange-coloured  spots  on  the  back,  at 
each  segment.  The  Butterfly  is  marked  with  a  black  dot  at  the 
base  of  the  posterior  wings.  It  appears  only  in  April.  Silene 
(Pearly  Border  Likeness)  inhabits  woods  and  waste  grounds. 

Cinxia  (Glanville)  inhabits  Europe,  but  is  very  rare  in  Britain. 
The  wings  are  indented,  tawny,  and  spotted  with  black;  the 
posterior  wings  with  three  whitish  fascia?  and  black  spots.  The 
Caterpillar  is  blackish  and  spiny ;  the  lines  of  spines  are,  alter- 
nately, white  and  red;  it  feeds  on  the  Theracium  pilosella  and 
Plantain:  it  is  of  a  very  timorous  nature;  for  if  the  leaf,  on  which 
it  is  feeding,  be  touched,  it  immediately  quits  its  hold,  curls  itself 
up,  and  falls  to  the  ground.  In  May  it  appears  in  its  perfect 
state,  and  is  very  swift  in  flight. 

M.  Urtemis  (Greasy)  inhabits  Europe;  it  is  common  near 
Norwich,  but  is  seldom  taken  near  London. 

M.  Dyctinna  (Heath)  inhabits  Europe;  the  wings  are  dentated, 
black,  with  tawny  spots;  the  posterior  wings  tawny,  with  spots  at 
die  base;  a  fascia  of  spots  in  the  middle,  and  lamellated  yellow 
spots  at  the  apex.  The  Caterpillar  feeds  on  heath;  it  remains 
fourteen  days  in  the  chrysalis  state,  and  in  June  the  Butterfly  is 
found  in  the  open  parts  of  woods,  and  dry  places,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  heath. 

Lucina  (Duke  of  Burgundy  Fritillary,  fig.  87,)  inhabits  Europe. 
The  wings  are  indented,  brown,  with 
tawny  spots;  there  are  two  fasciae, 
with  spots  on  the  under  side  of  the 
posterior  wings.  It  is  among  the 
smaller  Butterflies  found  in  the  middle 
of  May;  it  feeds  on  grasses.  This 
species  is  not  uncommon  near  Coombe  Wood,  Surrey. 


ENTOMOLOGY.  169 

The  wings  of  Argynnis  Lathonia  (Queen  of  Spain  Fritillary) 
are  indented,  yellowish,  with  black  spots,  and  thirty-seven  sil- 
very spots  underneath.  It  inhabits  Europe.  The  Caterpillar  is 
spiny  and  brownish,  with  black  spots,  and  a  white  dorsal  line; 
the  pupa  is  crenated,  brown  on  the  fore-part,  and  greenish  behind. 
The  Butterfly  is  very  rare,  or,  at  least,  its  appearance  in  this 
country  is  confined  to  the  hottest  summers:  it  lias  been  taken  at 
Gamblinggay-wood,  Cambridgeshire;  and  also  in  various  parts  of 
Kent. 

The  wings  of  Aglaia  (Dark  Green  Fritillary)  are  indented, 
tawny,  with  black  spots,  and  twenty-one  silvery  spots  below.  It 
inhabits  Europe.  The  Caterpillar  is  solitary,  black,  and  spiny, 
with  square  ferruginous  spots  on  the  sides;  the  pupa  is  brown. 
The  Butterfly  much  resembles  the  following  species,  but  the 
Caterpillar  differs. 

The  wings  of  Adippe  (High  Brown  Fritillary)  are  indented, 
tawny,  with  black  spots,  and  twenty-three  silvery  spots  on  the 
under  side.  It  inhabits  Europe^  The  Caterpillars  are  cinereous,  or 
brown,  with  numerous  red  spines,  and  a  black  dorsal  line  close 
to  a  white  one ;  they  are  produced  from  the  egg,  in  July,  and  feed 
until  September,  when  they  spin  a  fine  web,  under  which  they 
pass  the  winter,  at  the  root  of  the  Viola  odorata,  or  Viola  tricolor; 
on  which,  in  spring,  they  begin  to  feed,  and,  early  in  June,  change 
to  brown  chrysalides,  with  silvery  dots.  They  remain  three  weeks 
in  the  chrysalis  state;  at  the  end  of  which  their  metamorphosis  is 
complete.  Argynnis  Paphia  (Silver- 
washed  Fritillary,  fig.  88) : — wings 
indented,  tawny,  with  black  spots 
and  silvery  fascia?  below.  It  inhabits 
Europe.  This  is  among  the  largest 
of  the  British  Papilios.  The  Cater- 
pillar feeds  on  the  Viola  canina  and 
nettle;  it  is  solitary,  spinous,  and 
tawny,  with  a  yellow  dorsal  line;  the  spines  on  the  neck  are 
longer  than  the  rest:  the  pupa  is  gray,  contracted  at  the  neck, 
with  six  dents,  and  four  dots,  of  a  gold  colour,  on  the  anterior 
part.  The  Butterfly,  which  is  swift  in  flight,  appears  in  June 
at  the  sides  of  woods, 

Vanessa: — V.  Atalanta  (Red  Admirable) : — wings  indented, 
black,  with  white  spots ;  a  red  fascia  in  the  upper  wings,  and  an- 
other on  the  margin  of  the  under  wings.  It  inhabits  Europe.  The 
Caterpillar  is  solitary,  spinous,  and  greenish,  with  a  yellowish  lateral 


170 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


line :  it  feeds  on  the  nettle,  and  draws  the  leaf  close  round  it,  to 
protect  itself  against  the  injuries  of  the  weather  and  the  Ichneumon 
Fly.  As  soon  as  the  leaf  is  exhausted 
it  changes  its  skin,  shifts  to  another 
leaf,  and  webs  that  together,  as 
the  former.  When  it  has  grown  so 
large  that  one  leaf  will  not  cover 
and  feed  it,  it  creeps  to  the  top  of 
the  nettle,  webbing  itself  up  within 
the  leaves,  and  feeding  as  before.  At  the  end  of  July  it  fastens 
itself  by  the  tail,  within  the  web,  under  the  nettle-tops,  and 
changes  to  a  chrysalis:  the  pupa  is  dentated,  blackish,  and  cine- 
rous,  with  gilded  dots  below.  In  fourteen  days  after  becoming 
a  chrysalis,  which  happens  in  August,  the  Butterfly  appears:  it 
lives  through  the  winter  (Fig.  89,  Vanessa  Atalanta.) 

Vanessa  Cardui  (Painted  Lady,  fig.  90) :— The  Caterpillar  of  this 
interesting  species  is  solitary,  brown,  and  spiny,  with  yellow,  inter- 
rupted lines,  along  the  sides.  It  appears  to  be  confined  to  thistles, 
and  is  found  in  July.  It  remains  about  three  weeks  in  the  chry- 
salis state:  the  perfect  insect  is  found  in  August.  An  immense 
swarm  of  Butterflies,  of  the  species  called  the  Painted  Lady  (the 
Belle-Dame  of  the  French,  and  the  Papilio  Cardui  of  Linnaeus,) 
forming  a  column  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  broad,  was,  some 
time  since,  observed  in  the  district  of  Grandson,  Canton  de  Vaud. 
They  traversed  the  country,  with  great  rapidity,  from  north  to 
south;  all  flying  onward,  low,  equally,  and  closely  together;  and 
not  turning  from  their  course  on  the  approach  of  other  objects. 
The  fact  is  the  more  singular,  as  the  Caterpillars  of  the  Vanessa 
Cardui  are  not  gregarious,  but  solitary  from  the  moment  they 
are  hatched.  Professor  Bonelli,  of  Turin,  however,  observed  a  simi- 
lar species  of  Butterflies,  in  the  end  of  the  March  preceding  their 
appearance  at  Grandson.  Their  flight  was  also  directed  from 
north  to  south,  and  their  num- 
bers were  immense.  At  night, 
the  flowers  were  literally  covered 
with  them.  Towards  the  29th  of 
March  their  numbers  diminished ; 
but  even  in  June,  a  few  still  con- 
tinued. They  had  been  traced 
from  Coni,  Raconni,  Susa,  &c.  A 
similar  flight  of  Butterflies,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  is  re- 
corded by  M.  Louch,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Turin. 


ENTOMOLOGY.  171 

This  is  one  of  the  few  insects  that  are  universally  dispersed  over 
the  earth;  being  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 

V.  Antiopa  (Camber well  Beauty): — wings  angulated  and  black, 
the  borders  whitish ;  inhabits  Europe.  This  species  has  become 
exceedingly  rare  in  this  country.  Mr.  Haworth  has  observed,  in 
the  first  part  of  his  "  Lepidoptera  Britannica," — "  There  is  some- 
thing very  extraordinary  in  the  periodical,  but  irregular,  appear- 
ances of  this  species,  and  Papilio  Edusa,  Colias  Hyale  (of  this 
work,)  and  Papilio  Cardui.  They  are  plentiful  all  over  the  king- 
dom, in  some  years;  after  which,  Antiopa,  in  particular,  will  not 
be  seen  by  any  one  for  eight,  ten,  or  more  years>  and  then  appear 
as  plentiful  as  before.  To  suppose  they  come  from  the  continent 
is  an  idle  conjecture;  because  the  English  specimens  are  easily 
distinguished  from  all  others,  by  the  superior  whiteness  of  their 
borders.  Perhaps  their  eggs,  in  this  climate,  like  the  seeds  of 
some  vegetables,  may,  occasionally,  lie  dormant  for  several  seasons, 
and  not  hatch  until  some  extraordinary,  but  undiscovered,  coinci- 
dence awake  them  into  active  life." 

V.  lo  (Peacock  Butterfly) : — angulated  and  indented  wings,  of  a 
dull  red  colour,  spotted  with  black,  with  a  blue  ocellus  on  each. 
It  inhabits  Europe.  The  Caterpillars  are  found  on  the  hop  and 
the  nettle:  they  are  gregarious;  set  with  spines;  black,  with  white 
spots :  the  hinder  feet  are  ferruginous.  They  inclose  themselves 
in  a  web;  drawing,  at  the  same  time,  the  leaves  together  to  cover 
them.  They  change  their  colour  every  time  they  change  their 
skin,  and  make  a  web,  each  time,  at  a  distance  from  their  former 
residence.  When  in  their  last  skin,  they  forsake  the  web,  and 
feed  separately.  The  pupa  is  of  a  greenish  yellow,  with  ten  dents, 
and  bifid  behind:  it  undergoes  its  change  the  first  week  of  July, 
and  remains  in  the  pupa  state  three  weeks;  the  Butterfly  then 
appears. 

V.  Polychloros  (Great  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly): — wings  angu- 
lated, tawny,  with  black  spots ;  the  anterior  ones,  on  the  upper  side, 
with  four  black  dots.  It  inhabits  Europe.  The  Caterpillar  is  gre>- 
garious,  spiny,  and  blackish,  with  a  yellow  lateral  line;  it  feeds 
on  the  elm  and  fruit-trees:  the  pupa  is  reddish.  The  Butterflies 
appear  in  July ;  but  the  latter  brood  sometimes  pass  the  winter 
and  appear  in  March.  They  fly  swiftly,  and  delight  to  settle  in 
dry  pathways  and  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  to  bask  in  the  sun- 
shine. 

Urticse  (Small  Tortoise-shell  Butterfly) : — wings  angulated  and 
tawny,  with  black  spots;  the  anterior  ones,  on  the  upper  side,  with 
15 


172  ENTOMOLOGY. 

three  black  dots.  It  inhabits  Europe.  The  Caterpillar  is  gregarious, 
spiny,  and  dark -coloured,  sometimes  with  a  tinge  of  green;  the 
head  is  black:  it  feeds  on  the  nettle.  The  chrysalis  is  brownish, 
with  dents  and  gold-coloured  spots  at  the  neck,  and  sometimes 
altogether  gilded.  They  may  be  found  in  June,  hanging  by  the 
tail,  attached  to  the  leaves  or  stalks  of  the  nettle.  The  Butterfly 
is  very  common;  it  lives  through  the  winter,  and  comes  abroad, 
on  some  fine  day,  early  in  the  spring;  whence  Linnaeus  calls  it 
fallax  veris  indicium. 

C  Album  (White  C  Butterfly): — wings  angulated  and  tawny, 
with  black  spots;  the  posterior  one  marked,  on  the  under  side, 
with  a  white  C.  It  inhabits  Europe.  The  Caterpillar  is  spiny  and 
tawny;  the  back  yellow  before,  and  white  behind:  the  pupa  is 
reddish,  contracted  in  the  middle,  with  gilded  points;  it  is  found 
on  the  nettle,  the  hop,  the  willow,  and  the  currant.  The  Butter- 
fly is  seen  from  June  to  September. 

Iris  (Purple  Emperor,  fig.  91): — wings  indented,  brownish, 
shining  with  blue  or  purple;  on  both  surfaces  a  whitish  interrupted 

fascia,  and  a  single  ocellus  (or 
eye-like  marking,)  on  the  under 
wing.  The  following  account 
is  given  of  this  interesting  and 
elegant  insect,  by  Mr.  Haworth : 
"  In  the  month  of  July  he  makes 
his  appearance  in  the  winged 
state;  and,  invariably,  fixes  his 
throne  upon  the  summit  of  a 
lofty  oak ;  from  the  utmost  sprigs 
of  which,  on  sunny  days,  he  performs  his  aerial  excursions;  and, 
in  these,  ascends  to  a  much  greater  elevation  than  any  other  insect 
I  have  ever  seen:  sometimes  mounting  higher  than  the  eye  can 
follow;  especially  if  he  happen  to  quarrel  with  another  Emperor, — 
the  monarch  of  some  neighbouring  oak:  they  never  meet  without 
a  battle;  flying  upwards  all  the  while,  and  combatting  with  each 
other  as  much  as  possible;  after  which,  they  will  frequently  return 
again  to  the  identical  sprigs  from  whence  they  ascended.  The 
wings  of  this  fine  species  are  of  a  stronger  texture  than  those  of 
any  other  in  Britain,  and  more  calculated  for  that  gay  and  power- 
ful flight  which  is  so  much  admired  by  entomologists.  The  Purple 
Emperor  commences  his  aerial  movements  from  ten  to  twelve 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  but  does  not  perform  his  loftiest  flights 
till  noon ;  decreasing  them  after  this  hour,  until  he  quite  ceases 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


173 


to  fly,  about  four  in  the  afternoon :  thus  emulating  the  motions  of 
that  source  of  all  his  strength,  the  sun.  The  females,  like  those 
of  many  other  species,  are  very  rarely  seen  on  the  wing;  the 
reason  of  which  is  both  interesting  and  but  little  known:  it 
is  their  being  destitute  of  a  certain  spiral  socket,  which  the 
males  possess,  near  the  base  of  the  main  tendon  of  their  upper 
wings;  which  socket  receives  and  works  a  strong  elastic  spring 
arising  from  the  base  of  the  under  wings;  thereby  enabling  them 
to  perform  a  stronger,  longer,  and  more  easy  flight  than  it  is 
possible  for  the  females  to  do.  The  males  usually  fly  very  high, 
and  are  only  to  be  taken  by  a  bag-net  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  rod 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  long.  There  have  been  instances,  though 
very  rare,  of  their  settling  on  the  ground,  near  puddles  of  water, 
and  being  taken  there.  When  the  Purple  Emperor  is  within 
reach,  no  fly  is  more  easily  taken;  for  he  is  so  very  bold  and 
fearless,  that  he  will  not  move  from  his  settling  place  until  you 
quite  push  him  off:  you  may  even  tip  the  ends  of  his  wings,  and 
be  suffered  to  strike  again." 

Liminites: — L.  Camilla  (White 
Admirable,)  is  a  beautiful  species, 
which  has  become  rare  near  Lon- 
don, but  is  occasionally  found  in 
Suffolk :  it  is  remarkable  for  its  ele- 
gant flight  (Fig.  92.) 

Of  the  genus  Hipparchia,  we  appear  to  have  at  least  sixteen 
species;    many    of    them   are    very 
local ;   most  of  them  are  of  a  brown 
colour,    with   small   ocelli,    or   eye- 
like  markings:   the  most  variegated 
is  Galathea  (Fig.  93,)  which  is  found 
in  woods  during  the  month  of  July. 
Thecla: — T.  Quercus  (Purple  Hair  Streak,)  inhabits  woods  in 
June  and  July.      The   Caterpillar  feeds  on  the  oak,  and  may  be 
found  towards  the  end  of  May  (Fig.  94.) 


Lyc&na: — The  insects  of  this  group  may  be  divided  into  two 
sections, — the  blues  and  the  coppers :  the  latter  are  remarkable  for 


174 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


their  splendid  metallic  colours;  only  four  species  have  yet  been 
found  in  this  country.  L.  Dispar  (the  Large  Copper)  is  found  in 
the  fens  of  Huntingdonshire.  L.  Philoeas  (the  Small  Copper, 
fig.  95,)  is  found  on  heaths.  L.  Corydon  (the  Chalk  Hill  Blue, 
fig.  96,)  is  confined  to  chalky  districts,  and  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  richest  of  the  species. 

Hespcria: — Of  this  curious  genus  we  have  but  six  species; 
they  inhabit  the  skirts  of  woods  and  banks;  they  fly  swiftly, 
but  to  a  very  short  distance,  then  alight 
for  a  time,  again  fly  a  few  yards,  and  very 
often  settle  again  upon  the  same  leaf  or 
flower:  from  this  circumstance  they  are 
termed  Skippers  (Fig.  97,  the  Hesperia 
Malvae,  Mallow  Skipper.) 

Sphingidte: — Some  of  the  species  of  this  genus  are  the  largest 
of  Lepidopterous  insects.  (Sphinx  Ligustri,  Privet  Hawk  Moth, 
fig.  98.) 


They  fly,  for  the  most  part,  early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the 
evening;  except  the  small  species  (the  ^Egeria,)  which  appear 
during  the  day.  Their  upper  wings  are  longer  and  narrower,  and 
the  under  wings  shorter,  than  those  of  the  Papilios.  They  hover 
about  flowers,  and,  without  settling  on  them,  suck  the  nectarious 
juices  with  their  long  spiral  tongue.  When  they  rest,  they  fold 
the  tongue  under  the  breast;  which,  when  they  fly,  is  stretched 
out.  The  Caterpillars  are  large,  smooth,  without  hairs,  and 
dotted;  they  have  sixteen  feet;  nine  spiracula  on  each  side,  with 
an  erect,  rigid,  acute  horn  on  the  eleventh  abdominal  segment. 
They  change  into  a  pupa  obtecta,  either  under  leaves  or  under 
the  earth,  where  they  make,  sometimes,  an  ample  web,  and  some- 
times a  firm  case.  The  pupa  is  elongated,  and  generally  continues 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


175 


through  the  winter  before  the  perfect  insect  appears.  Many  of 
them  fly  with  great  rapidity  and  make  a  noise  with  their  wings. 
The  Caterpillar  of  die  Ligustri  (Privet  Hawk  Moth,  fig.  98,)  feeds 
on  the  privet,  the  lilac,  the  ash,  the  alder,  and  the  willow:  it  is 
tailed;  of  a  green  colour;  with  oblique,  lateral,  red  striae  before, 
and  whitish  behind.  When  at  rest,  it  keeps  the  fore-part  of  the 
body  erect,  with  the  feet  elevated.  It  goes  into  the  earth  in 
August,  to  change  into  the  chrysalis  state,  and  the  Moth  appears 
in  June.  The  pupa  is  brown,  with  four  dents  at  the  tail. 

Macroglossum: — The  Caterpillar  of  the  Humming-bird  Hawk 

Moth    (Stellatarurn,    fig.    99,)    feeds   on   the   stellated   plants:   it 

99  is  tailed,  and  dotted  with  white;   the  tail 

0  is  subulated  and  blue;   the  apex  ferrugi- 

^j^y'  nous:   the   pupa  is   brown.     The   perfect 

4flBRaflHE£9^     insect  is  not  uncommon.      By  the  motion 

^^t^jM     plpp^       of  its  wings,  when  flying,  it  produces  a 

sound  like  that  made  by  a  Bee  or  Wasp. 

It  flies  rapidly  from  flower  to  flower,  and, 

without  settling,  inserts  its  long  tongue  into  them  to  suck  their 
juices.  The  fly  is  found  from  April  to  September,  in  gardens  and 
lanes,  near  woods. 

Algeria: — Tipuliformis  (Fig.  100,  the  Cur- 
rant Hawk,)  is  a  small  species  found  on 
the  currant,  in  June.  The  Caterpillar  feeds 
on  the  wood :  it  is  solitary,  somewhat  hairy, 
and  whitish ;  the  head  and  feet  are  yellow, 
with  a  long  line  down  the  back,  of  a  darker  colour. 

Zygana: — The  Caterpillar  of  Filipendula  (the  Burnet  Hawk) 
is  found  on  the  rag-wort:   it  is  of 
a  sulphur    colour,   with   four   lines 
of  black  dots.      The  pupa  is  brown, 
yellow  in  the  middle,  with  brown 
stigmatae ;    it  is  inclosed  in  a  yellow 
case,    fixed    to    the    stem   of  some 
plant.      The  perfect  insect  appears 
in    June;    it    flies   heavily,    and    is 
easily  caught  (Fig.  101,  the  cocoon; 
Fig.  102,  the  perfect  insect.) 
Hepialus: — Humuli   (Ghost  Moth) : — wings  yellow,  striated 
with  orange;    those  of  the  male  with  white.      It  inhabits  Europe. 
The   Caterpillar  feeds  on  the  roots  of  the  hop  and  burdock:   it 
is  of  a  cream  colour,  and  somewhat  glossy;   the  head  is  nut-brown  ; 
15* 


176 


EXTOMOLOGY. 


on  the  back,  close  behind  the  head,  is  a  brown,  shining  mark,  of  u 
hard,  callous  substance.  It  changes,  in  May,  to  a  dark  brown 
pupa,  and  the  Moth  appears  in 
--..  June.  It  flies  in  the  dusk  of  the 
evening,  hovering  up  and  down, 
in  one  particular  spot,  for  a  long 
time.  It  is  often  seen  in  church- 
yards; whence  its  English  name.  (Fig.  103,  the  female.) 

Cossus: — The   Caterpillar  of  the  species,   Ligniperda   (Goat 
Moth,)  which    is  one   of  our  largest   Moths,  feeds  on  the   wood 
of  the  birch,  oak,  and  willow:    it   is  of  a  carnation  colour;    the 
104  head  is  black:  it  lives  in  this 

state  three  years,  before  its 
transformation  to  a  pupa; 
when  full-fed,  it  is  four 
inches  long.  It  makes  a 
case  composed  of  bits  of 
wood  and  saw-dust,  which 
it  unites  with  a  strong  web, 
lined  in  the  inside  with  a  fine  white  filmy  substance,  like  satin.  It 
remains  in  the  pupa  state  two  months;  and  at  the  end  of  June 
the  perfect  insect  may  be  found  on  willow-trees  (Fig.  104.) 

Saturnia: — The  Caterpillars  of  that  elegant  insect,  S.  Pavonia 
Minor  (Emperor  Moth,)  are  gregarious;  green  and  verticillated; 
with  hairy,  red,  and  yellow  warts  on  a  black  band:  they  are  found 
on  the  bramble  and  dog-rose.  About  the  middle  of  July  they 
spin  a  strong  silken  case,  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  a  Florence 
flask  without  the  neck;  and  having  inclosed  themselves,  they 
105  change  into  a  blackish  pupa,  and 

thus  remain  till  the  month  of 
April;  when  the  mouth  of  the 
case,  being  elastic,  yields  to  the 
effort  of  its  tenant  to  get  out, 
and  the  perfect  insect  appears 
(Fig.  105,  the  male.) 

Bombyx: — The  species,  Mori,  of  which  the  Caterpillar  is  known 
I  by  the   name  of  the  Si  Ik- worm   (Fig.  106,  the 
male,)    is  said  to  have  come,  originally,  from 
the  northern  provinces  of  China;    and,  before 
the    introduction   of  the   animal  into   Europe, 
the  silk,  which  is  produced   from   its  cocoon, 
was  sold  for  more  than  its  weight  in  gold.      The  city  of  Turfan, 


ENTOMOLOGY.  177 

in  Bucharia,  the  metropolis  of  the  Seres,  the  Serica  of  Ptolemy, 
was,  for  a  long  period,  the  principal  rendezvous  and  depot  of 
the  silk-merchants  of  China.  Expelled  from  their  country  by 
Huns,  this  people  established  themselves  in  Great  Bucharia  and 
India;  and  it  is  related,  that  the  Greek  missionaries,  in  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  transported  the  ova  of  the  Silk-worm 
in  reeds,  for  the  first  time,  to  Constantinople.  The  cultivation 
of  this  useful  animal  was  thus  extended  to  Southern  Europe ;  and 
was,  afterwards,  introduced  into  Spain  and  Africa  by  the  Arabs. 
In  the  time  of  the  Crusaders,  the  insect  passed  from  the  Morea 
into  Sicily  and  Calabria.  From  Calabria,  the  mulberry  and  the 
ova  of  the  same  animal,  were  brought  to  France  by  some  of  the 
followers  of  Charles  the  Eighth,  on  his  conquest  of  Naples;  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  insect  was  afterwards  encouraged  and 
patronized  by  Sully,  as  an  important  branch  of  national  industry. 
The  mode  of  feeding  and  managing  the  Caterpillar,  or  Silk- worm, 
and  procuring  its  delicate  web,  is  detailed  in  numerous  works, 
both  scientific  and  economical.  The  Caterpillar  feeds  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  black  or  white  mulberry, — the  latter  being  preferred; 
it  thrives  well  in  this  country,  also,  on  lettuce-leaves.  After 
remaining  in  this  state  for  about  six  weeks,  during  which  the 
Caterpillar  changes  its  skin  six  times,  the  animal  ceases  to  feed, 
and  begins  to  form  an  envelope,  or  cocoon,  of  silken  fibres,  in 
some  convenient  spot,  producing  minute  threads  until  it  has 
formed  an  oval  yellow  case,  or  ball,  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's 
egg,  in  which  it  changes  to  a  chrysalis.  In  this  state  it  remains 
about  fifteen  days,  when  the  perfect  insect  is  produced.  This, 
however,  is  not  allowed  to  happen  when  Silk-worms  are  reared 
for  the  sake  of  the  silk  :  the  cocoons  are,  therefore,  exposed  to 
such  a  degree  of  heat  as  to  kill  the  inclosed  animals;  a  few  only 
being  saved  to  keep  up  the  breed.  The  Moth,  when  produced, 
is  but  very  short-lived.  The  length  of  the  silken  thread,  when 
unrolled,  is  said  to  be  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  yards, 
and  it  is  composed  of  two  united  threads,  or  filaments,  agglutinated 
together.  The  manufacture  of  silk  goods  from  this  humble  but 
beautiful  material,  has  been  known  from  very  early  times.  The 
general  use  of  silk  in  Europe,  however,  boasts  of  no  great  an- 
tiquity. Henry  II.  of  France,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
individual  who  had  stockings  of  this  manufacture.  Queen  Elizabeth 
first  added  black  silk  stockings  to  the  royal  wardrobe;  and  James 
the  Sixth,  of  Scotland,  before  his  accession  to  the  English  crown, 
wrote  to  the  Earl  of  Mar  for  the  loan  of  a  pair  of  stockings,  of 


178 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


the  same  material,  to  appear,  with  dignity,  before  the  English 
ambassadors.  Towards  the  end  of  this  King's  reign,  however, 
the  broad-silk  manufacture  was  prosecuted,  in  England,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent;  and,  in  1661,  the  silk -throwsters,  of  London, 
employed  four  thousand  persons.  The  manufacture  of  silk  goods 
is  now  an  important  branch  of  British  industry. 

Noctua: — The  Caterpillar  of  JN'upta  (Red   Underwing  Moth, 

fig.  107,)  is  naked  and  gray, 
with  a  truncated  wart  upon 
the  tail:  it  feeds  on  the  wil- 
low, and  is  found  in  June 
and  July.  It  spins  a  case, 
in  which  it  turns  to  a  blue- 
ish  pupa.  The  Moth  is 
found  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember. 

Tinea: — T.  Evonymella  (the  Spotted  Ermine,  fig.  108,)  inhabits 
the    white-thorn   and   apple-trees:    it   feeds   on    the    leaves;    and 
whole   hedges  may   frequently  be  observed  entirely  destroyed  by 
los  the  Caterpillar.     A  species,  closely  allied 

to  this, — Tinea  punctata,  or  T.  Padilla, — 
has  been  directed,  in  the  larva  state,  by 
Mr.  Habenstreet,  of  Munich,  so  as  to  work 
on  a  paper  model  suspended  from  the 
ceiling  of  a  room.  To  this  model  he  can  give  any  form  and  di- 
mensions ;  and  he  has  thus  been  enabled  to  obtain  square  shawls, 
an  air-balloon,  four  feet  high,  and  a  woman's  complete  robe  with 
the  sleeves,  but  without  seams.  One  or  two  larvae  can  weave  a 
square  inch  of  cloth:  a  great  number  are,  of  course,  employed, 
and  their  motions  are  interdicted  from  the  parts  of  the  model  not 
to  be  covered,  by  applying  oil  to  those  parts.  The  cloth  exceeds 
in  fineness  the  lightest  gauze,  and  has  been  worn,  as  a  robe, 
over  her  court  dress,  by  the  Queen  of  Bavaria. 

ORDER  XIV.— DIPTERA. 

This  order  contains  those  insects  that  have  but  two  wings: 
the  Common  House  Fly,  the  Carrion  Fly,  &c.  belong  to  it.  Few 
insects  of  this  species  are  better  known  than  the  Gnat;  and  there 
are  not  many  that  afford  a  more  interesting  history.  From  the 
beginning  of  May  their  larvae  may  be  seen  in  the  stagnant  waters, 
with  their  heads  downward.  From  the  side  of  the  abdomen  arises 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


179 


the  hollow  tube  through  which  they  respire;  their  heads  are 
armed  with  hooks,  by  which  they  seize  on  such  insects  and  bits  of 
grass  as  constitute  their  food;  on  their  sides  are  four  small  fins, 
by  the  help  of  which  they  swim  and  crawl  along.  These  larvae 
retain  their  form  during  a  fortnight,  or  three  weeks,  after  which 
they  turn  into  chrysalids;  and  all  the  parts  of  the  winged  insect 
are  then  distinguishable  through  their  thin  exterior  covering:  an 
alteration,  also,  takes  place  in  the  situation  and  shape  of  the  re- 
spiratory tube ;  in  this  state  it  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  placed 
near  the  head.  The  chrysalids  abstain  from  eating,  and  reside 
almost  constantly  on  the  surface  of  the  water;  but  the  least  motion 
causes  them  to  unroll  themselves  from  their  spiral  position,  and, 
by  means  of  the  paddles  on  their  hinder  part,  to  plunge  to  die 
bottom.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  they  are  transformed  into 
perfect  Gnats.  If,  at  the  instant  of  the  change,  a  breeze  spring 
up,  the  consequences  to  them  are  fatal,  as  the  water  gets  into 
their  cases,  from  which  they  are  not  yet  perfectly  loosened;  this 
immediately  sinks  them,  and  they  are  drowned.  The  female 
deposits  her  eggs  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  surrounds  them 
with  a  kind  of  unctuous  matter,  which  prevents  them  from  sink- 
ing; at  the  same  time  fastening  them  with  a  thread  to  the  bottom, 
to  prevent  them  from  floating  away,  at  the  mercy  of  every  breeze, 
from  a  place,  the  warmth  of  which  is  proper  for  their  production, 
to  any  other,  where  the  water  may  be  loo  cold,  or 
their  enemies  be  too  numerous.  In  this  state  the 
egg,  therefore,  resembles  a  buoy  that  is  fixed  by 
an  anchor.  As  they  approach  towards  maturity 
they  sink  deeper;  and,  at  last,  Avhen  they  leave 
the  egg,  they  creep,  in  the  form  of  grubs,  at 
the  bottom.  If  the  Gnats  were  not  devoured 
by  fish,  water-fowl,  swallows,  and  other  animals,  the  air  would 
often,  from  their  immense  multitudes,  become  darkened:  a  few 
instances  have  occurred  in  which  this  has  been  the  case.  (Fig.  109, 
Culex  Pipiens,  the  Common  Gnat.) 

It  is  impossible  to  behold  and  not  admire  the  beautiful  struc- 
ture of  the  proboscis  of  the  Gnat,  through  which  it  draws  the 
juices  that  afford  it  nourishment.  The  naked  eye  is  only  able  to 
discover  a  long  and  slender  tube,  containing  five  or  six  spicula  of 
exquisite  fineness.  These  spicula,  introduced  into  the  veins  of 
animals,  act  like  the  suckers  of  a  pump,  and  cause  the  blood  to 
ascend.  The  insect  injects  a  small  quantity  of  liquid  into  the 
wound,  by  which  the  blood  is  made  more  fluid.  It  soon  begins 


180  ENTOMOLOGY. 

to  swell  and  grow  red,  but  does  not  quit  its  hold  till  it  has  gorged 
itself.  The  liquor  it  has  injected  causes,  by  its  fermenting,  a  dis- 
agreeable itching,  which  may  lie  removed  by  volatile  alkali,  or  by 
immediately  rubbing  and  washing  the  place  with  cold  water.  We 
are  also  told,  that  rubbing  the  part  affected  with  fuller's-earth 
and  water,  or  chalk  and  water,  will  lessen  the  inflammation. 

Eftrus: — The  larva.-  of  the  Ox  Bot  (Bovis,)  live  in  the  backs 
of  oxen  and  other  cattle,  causing  sub-cu- 
taneous tubercles,  or  knots;  they  grow 
to  be  as  large  as  the  end  of  the  finger, 
and  may  be  squeezed  out  at  a  hole  they 
have  always  open ;  they  are  round,  rough, 
and  of  a  dirty  white  colour  (Fig.  110, 
the  perfect  insect,  ^Estrus  bovis,  the  Ox 
Bot.)  There  are  two  species  peculiar  to  the  horse,  one  to  the 
deer,  and  one  to  the  sheep. 

ORDER   XV.— OMALOPTERA. 

The  fifteenth  order  contains  the  Forest  Fly  and  the  sheep  and 
Swallow  Ticks.  The  Forest  Fly,  we  believe, 
is  confined  to  the  New  Forest  of  Hampshire: 
these  insects  cling  to  the  flanks  of  the  horse 
in  swarms;  so  that  several  handfuls  may, 
actually,  at  times,  be  taken  from  a  single 
animal.  (Fig.  Ill,  the  Forest  Fly.) 

ORDER  XVI.— APTERA. 

The  best  example  of  this  order,  which  is  the  sixteenth,  is  the 
Common  Flea.  When  examined  with  a  microscope,  it  will  be  ob- 
served to  have  a  small  head,  large  eyes,  and  two  short  four-jointed 
antenme,  between  which  is  the  trunk,  or  proboscis.  The  body  is 
enveloped  in  a  shelly  armour  that  is  always  clear  and  bright :  this  is 
beset,  at  the  segment,  with  many  sharp  bristles.  All  its  motions 
indicate  agility;  and  its  muscular  power  is  so  extraordinary,  as 
justly  to  excite  our  wonder.  We  know  no  other  animal  whatever, 
whose  strength,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  can  be  put  in  competition 
\vith  that  of  a  flea;  for,  on  a  moderate  computation,  it  is  able 
to  leap  to  a  distance  of,  at  least,  two  hundred  times  its  own  length ; 
it  will  drag  after  it  a  chain  a  hundred  times  heavier  than  itself; 
and,  to  compensate  for  this  force,  will  eat  ten  times  its  own  weight 
of  provisions  in  a  day.  Mr.  Boverich,  an  ingenious  watch-maker, 
who,  some  years  ago,  lived  in  the  Strand,  exhibited  a  little  ivory 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


181 


chaise,  with  four  wheels,  and  all  its  proper  apparatus,  and  a  man 
sitting  on  the  box,  all  of  which  were  drawn  by  a  single  Flea.  He 
made  a  small  landau,  which  opened  and  shut  by  springs,  with  six 
horses  harnessed  to  it ;  a  coachman  sitting  on  the  box,  and  a  dog 
between  his  legs ;  four  persons  in  the  carriage,  two  footmen  behind 
it,  and  a  postilion  riding  on  one  of  the  horses:  all  of  which  a 
Flea  drew  with  ease.  He  likewise  had  a  chain  of  brass,  about 
two  inches  long,  containing  two  hundred  links,  with  a  hook  at 
one  end,  and  a  padlock  and  key  at  the  other,  which  jtc  Flea  drew 
very  nimbly  along. 


REARING  OF  CATERPILLARS. 

As  the  rearing  and  management  of  Caterpillars  may  prove 
interesting,  before  we  conclude  we  shall  detail  the  most  success- 
ful methods  that  can  be  adopted  for  that  purpose. 

Breeding-cages  are  used  for  rearing  in- 
sects from  Caterpillars,  and  may  be  made 
of  wainscot  (deal  is  objectionable,  as  the 
scent  from  the  turpentine  is  liable  to  kill  the 
larvae,)  in  the  form  represented  by  fig.  112, 
with  the  sides  and  front  covered  with 
gauze.  A  small  square  box,  or  tube,  should 
be  placed  in  it,  for  the  reception  of  a  phial 
of  water,  in  which  the  stalks  of  the  plants 
may  be  put  for  the  Caterpillars  to  feed  OIL. 
The  most  convenient  size  of  the  cage  is  about  eight  inches  in 
breadth,  four  in  depth,  and  one  foot  in  height;  it  should  contain 
one  kind  of  Caterpillar  only,  as  some  species  devour  others;  and 
indeed  if  left  without  food,  they  will  even  devour  those  of  their  own 
kind.  At  the  bottom  of  each  cage  a  quantity  of  earth  should  be 
placed,  about  two  inches  deep,  mixed  with  a  little  sand,  and 
some  of  the  fine  mould  frequently  found  in  the  bodies  of  old 
trees,  to  prevent  the  earth  drying  up  into  hard  lumps  or  clods. 
The  cages  should  be  placed  in  a  cool  and  moist  place,  as  in  a 
cellar  or  out-house;  for  a  great  number  of  Caterpillars  change 
into  the  pupa  state  several  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  if  kept  too  dry,  the  earth  about  them  will  absorb  the  nutritive 
moisture  from  the  animal;  thereby  not  only  weakening  it,  but 
hardening  the  shell  in  which  it  is  inclosed;  so  that  its  strength 
will  be  insufficient  to  burst  the  case  when  it  should  come  forth 
in  its  perfect  state. 


182 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


As  some  years  produce  a  greater  quantity  of  Caterpillars  than 
others,  and  keeping  each  kind  by  themselves  would  not  only 
require  an  immense  number  of  cages,  but  much  time  to  change 
the  food,  and  pay  a  proper  attention  to  them,  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  have  a  breeding-cage  of  much  larger  dimensions;  so 
that  a  great  number  of  Caterpillars  may  l>e  fed  in  one  cage,  in 
which  a  variety  of  food  may  be  kept:  it  should,  however,  be 
taken  away,  and  the  cage  replenished  with  fresh  plants  every 
second  or  £ird  day,  in  order  to  obtain  fine  specimens  of  the 
perfect  insects. 

For  the  mode  of  arranging,  preparing,  and  preserving  insects, 
much  valuable  information  may  be  derived  from  a  perusal  of  the 
Compendium  of  Entomology,  by  Mr.  Samouelle;  Messrs.  Kirby 
and  Spence's  admirable  and  interesting  work  may  also  be  read 
with  advantage,  by  those  who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  an  inti- 
mate knowledge  of  the  habits  and  forms  of  the  insect  world. 


THE    AVIARY. 


Th'  affrighted  Dove,  by  a  fell  Hawk  pursued, 
For  safety  flew  to  thee,  but  found  it  not  : 
She,  hapless,  was  again  cast  forth,  and  died: — 
Thou,  ruthless  man  !  no  more  shall  be  a  judge. 

x  CCUSTOMED  as  our  reader  must  be  to  the 
beautiful  forms  and  plumage  of  many  varieties 
of  birds,  she  will,  doubtless,  feel  an  inclina- 
nation,  not  merely  to  possess  some  knowledge  of 
the  proper  mode  of  treating  those  which  are 
usually  kept  in  the  Aviary,  but  also  to  acquire 
an  idea  of  the  natural  history  of  so  interesting 
a  class  of  the  animal  kingdom,  as  that  to  which  they  belong. 
In  some  degree  to  satisfy  so  laudable  a  desire,  will  be  our  object 
throughout  the  present  article. 

Birds  considerably  exceed  quadrupeds,  in  point  of  number, 
but  fall  short  of  them  in  size.  The  Ostrich,  which  is  the  largest 
bird  known,  is  much  less  than  many  quadrupeds,  and  the  smallest 
of  these  is  larger  than  the  Humming-bird.  All  birds  are  ovi- 
parous ;  producing  eggs,  from  which  the  young  are  subsequently 
hatched:  they  are  very  long-lived,  and  dispersed  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  earth.  To  man,  birds  are  exceedingly  useful,  although 
but  few  species  have  been  domesticated:  the  flesh  of  many  of 
them  affords  us  delicious  food,  and  the  plumage  of  others  is  ren- 
dered valuable  by  its  application  to  a  variety  of  purposes. 
16 


184  THE    AVIARY. 

The  bony  frame  in  birds  is  much  lighter  than  in  quadrupeds; 
the  cavities  are  larger,  and  it  is  altogether  well  calculated  for  the 
purpose  of  flight.  The  strong  ridge  down  the  middle  of  the  breast- 
bone is  adapted  for  the  attachment  of  those  powerful  muscles  by 
which  the  wings  are  moved.  The  breast-bone  is  very  large;  the 
neck  long  and  flexible;  and  the  spine  immoveable.  The  bones 
of  the  legs  are  analogous  to  those  of  the  hind  legs  of  quadrupeds, 
and  those  of  the  wings,  to  their  anterior  limbs:  the  former  termi- 
nate usually  in  four  toes, — three  of  which  are  placed  before,  and 
one  behind.  Some  birds  have  only  three  toes,  and  a  few  but  two ; 
and  their  position  varies  considerably  in  different  individuals. 
The  termination  of  the  wings  is  in  three  joints  only;  the  outer 
one  of  which  is  very  short. 

The  crop  and  gizzard  are  important  parts  of  birds:  the  former 
is  a  membranaceous  bag,  which  softens  and  prepares  the  dry  food 
for  the  gizzard,  into  which  it  afterwards  passes,  and  where,  by 
means  of  two  very  powerful  muscles,  and  a  number  of  hard  sub- 
stances which  birds  swallow,  and  which  are  retained  in  the  gizzard 
for  this  purpose,  the  aliment  is  forcibly  ground.  In  the  Rapacious 
Birds,  the  gizzard  is  wanting; — their  stomachs  being  similar  to 
those  of  quadrupeds* 

To  whatever  bird  we  may  turn  our  attention,  we  shall  find 
that  it  is  furnished  with  a  beak  nicely  adapted  for  its  food  and 
manner  of  feeding:  and  that  there  is  often  a  marked  affinity  be- 
tween the  beak  and  the  foot.  The  celebrated  Cuvier  states,  that 
we  never  meet  with  the  sharp  talons  of  the  Eagle  accompanying 
the  flattened  beak  of  the  Swan.  The  birds  which  are  mounted 
upon  long  stilt-like  legs,  have  either  long  beaks  or  long  bills,  and 
sometimes  both,  to  enable  them  to  reach  their  food  without  diffi- 
culty; — the  powerful  legs  and  claws  of  the  Rapacious  order,  enable 
the  birds  to  seize  their  prey  and  assist  them  in  tearing  it; — the 
claws  of  the  Woodpecker,  which,  by  means  of  its  hard  bill  and 
long  barbed  tongue,  is  enabled  to  open  clefts,  and  extract  the 
insects  which  it  eats,  are  so  well  adapted  to  its  habits,  that  the 
young  ones  can  climb  up  and  down  the  trees  before  they  are  able 
to  fly. 

The  sight  of  birds,  especially  those  of  the  Rapacious  kind,  is 
very  acute :  they  possess  the  power  of  accommodating  the  eye  to 
the  various  distances  of  objects,  so  as  to  see  clearly  such  as  are  a 
great  way  off,  and  also  those  which  are  close  to  them.  They  derive 
this  power,  it  is  supposed,  from  a  singular  arrangement  of  scales 
round  the  iris,  which  enables  them  to  elongate  or  shorten  the  axis 


THE    AVIARY.  185 

of  the  eye,  according  to  circumstances.  (Fig.  1,  eye  of  the  Owl; 
a,  the  iris,  &c.  very  prominent;  6,  a  series  of  bony  plates,  or  scales, 
which  slide  over  each  other,  and  allow  of  an  altera- 
tion in  the  axis  of  the  eye ;  c,  a  portion  of  a  square 
muscle,  which  draws  down  the  crystaline  lens,  de- 
signated by  a  dotted  line,  and  thus  alters  the  focus 
of  sight;  d,  the  optic  nerve.)  It  has  been  stated,  on 
good  authority,  that  within  a  short  time  after  an  animal  has  been 
killed,  when  not  a  speck  was  previously  seen  in  the  heavens, 
Vultures,  in  great  numbers,  have  appeared  approaching  from  im- 
mense distances  towards  the  carcass,  although  not  the  least  odour 
from  putrefaction  was  perceptible.  Similar  facts  are  related,  ac- 
companied by  such  circumstances  as  have  led  authors  to  believe, 
that  the  powers  of  scent,  in  some  Rapacious  Birds,  are  even 
greater  than  those  of  vision. 

Birds  also  possess  the  sense  of  hearing  in  great  perfection 
They  have  no  external  appendages  to  the  ear,  except  feathers : 
that  of  the  Owl  is  remarkably  large  (Fig.  2).  Connected  to  the 
cavity  of  the  tympanum,  or  drum  of  the  ear,  of 
this  bird,  is  a  cellular  structure,  to  which  its  extra- 
ordinary acuteness  of  hearing  is  in  some  degree 
attributed.-^ — The  organs  of  touch  are  more  or  less 
powerful  in  different  birds.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  bills  of  Ducks,  Geese,  and  others  of  similar 
habits,  are  covered  with  a  delicate  membrane,  so 
abundantly  supplied  with  nerves,  as  to  enable  the  birds  to  discover 
the  food  they  seek  beneath  the  surface  of  the  mud. 

The  plumage  of  birds  is  no  less  admirable  for  its  nice  adapta- 
tion to  their  necessities  and  manner  of  living,  than  for  its  richness 
and  variety  of  colour.  The  feathers  next  the  skin  are  furnished 
with  a  sort  of  down,  which  keeps  the  body  of  the  bird  warm ;  the 
exterior  ones  are  neatly  folded  over  each  other,  tending  in  the 
same  direction,  and  calculated,  by  their  formation,  to  insure  speed, 
as  well  as  to  keep  out  the  wet  and  cold.  Certain  glands  upon  the 
hinder  part  of  the  back  afford  a  quantity  of  oil,  which  the  bird 
presses  out  with  its  bill,  and  rubs  over  its  plumage  to  smooth  and 
render  it  capable  of  affording  a  greater  resistance  to  water.  The 
Aquatic  Birds  have  a  more  bountiful  supply  of  this  oil  than  those 
which  live  on  land.  The  exterior  feathers  have  a  series  of  fila- 
ments regularly  arranged  on  each  side,  forming  two  beards; — the 
filaments  of  one  being  longer  than  those  of  the  other;  the  edges 
on  both  sides  are  perfectly  even,  and  neatly  tapered  off,  by  all  the 


186 


THE    AVIARY. 


filaments  decreasing  to  a  point  at  their  extremities.  If  the  fila- 
ments of  any  feather,  which  has  not  been  too  much  damaged,  be 
separated  from  each  other,  so  as  to  stand  completely  upright,  and 
the  feather  be  then  drawn  lightly  a  few  times  through  the  finger 
and  thumb,  from  the  quill  upwards,  all  the  filaments  will  unite 
again,  and  recover  their  smooth  and  entire  surface:  so,  when  the 
bird's  plumage  gets  ruffled,  it  is  enabled  to  restore  each  feather  to 
its  proper  state  by  bringing  the  filaments  together  through  the 
mandibles  of  its  bill;  the  edges  of  the  filaments  being  furnished 
with  hooks,  by  means  of  which,  each  locks  itself  fast  to  its  neigh- 
bour. The  shaft  of  the  feather  is  light  in  its  construction,  slightly 
arched,  of  a  material  and  size  sufficiently  strong  for  the  purposes 
to  which  it  is  devoted,  and  lined  with  a  soft  pulp,  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  laminae,  or  filaments,  of  which  they  are  composed. 

The  names  and  situa- 
tions of  the  principal 
feathers  of  birds,  are 
as  follows  (Fig.  3:)  a, 
the  auriculars ;  6,  the 
lesser  coverts  of  the 
wings ;  c,  the  greater 
coverts;  d,  the  pri- 
maries, which  spring 
from  the  first  bone  of 

d  e          c        b       f  the  wing;    e,  the  se- 

condaries, which  spring  from  the  second  bone  of  the  wing;  /,  the 
four  or  five  feathers  which  constitute  the  bastard  wing;  g-,  the 
tertials;  A,  the  scapulars;  i,  the  tail  coverts:  the  under  coverts 
clothe  the  insides  of  the  wings. 

The  bones  of  a  bird  are  hollow,  and  admit  air  from  the  lungs 
into  their  cavities ;  thus  the  specific  gravity  of  the  body  is  de- 
creased, and  the  bird  is  better  able  to  sustain  itself  on  the  wing. 
A  number  of  air-bags,  or  cells,  which  communicate  with  the  lungs, 
and  run  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  tend  materially  to  the  same 
effect:  by  means  of  these  air-bags,  which  birds  are  enabled  to  fill 
or  empty  at  pleasure,  they  can  increase  or  diminish  their  specific 
gravity,  more  or  less,  as  may  be  most  expedient,  in  the  various 
actions  of  diving  (if  water-birds,)  soaring  from  the  earth,  or  alight- 
ing upon  it.  Air-cells  also  extend  along  the  muscles ;  and  these, 
in  such  birds  as  are  most  remarkable  for  their  power  of  flight,  are 
particularly  large.  Even  the  barrels  of  the  quills  are  hollow  and 
contain  air ;  so  that  a  bird  may  be  said  to  bear  some  resemblance 


THE    AVIARY.  187 

to  an  inflated  balloon.  Its  air-cells,  &c.  render  it  so  buoyant,  that 
the  body  is  indebted  for  but  little  support  to  the  wings,  which  are 
therefore  left,  in  a  great  measure,  free,  to  increase  the  speed  or 
direct  the  course.  The  addition  to  its  specific  gravity,  obtained 
by  compressing  the  body,  so  as  to  expel  the  air  from  the  cells, 
enables  the  bird,  if  Aquatic,  to  descend  rapidly  from  the  surface 
of  the  water ;  or,  if  Rapacious,  to  pounce  with  greater  velocity, 
from  its  usual  elevation,  upon  its  prey  beneath.  The  wings  are 
placed  in  the  most,  advantageous  situation  for  the  purpose  of  flight ; 
the  pectoral  muscles,  which  are  chiefly  concerned  in  putting  them 
in  motion,  are  much  stronger  than  in  other  animals. 

The  power  of  the  wings  decreases,  by  almost  imperceptible 
gradations,  through  different  tribes,  until  at  length  the  faculty  of 
flying  ceases  altogether.  While  a  few  of  the  quadrupeds  are 
endowed  with  wings  which  enable  them  to  soar  aloft  from  the 
earth,  there  are  birds  whose  puny  pinions  will  not  support  them 
for  an  instant  in  the  air.  Some  possess  the  power  of  running  with 
astonishing  swiftness;  others  are  capable  of  swimming  with  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  facility;  a  few  can  neither  run  nor  fly; — but  to 
these,  Nature  has  not  been  altogether  a  niggard;  for  where  the 
Ostrich  could  not  wade,  nor  the  Eagle  swim,  the  Penguin, — whose 
feet  Buflbn  describes  as  resembling  two  broad  oars,  so  situated  as 
to  render  the  bird  exceedingly  well  qualified  for  its  manner  of 
living, — floats  in  perfect  security. 

NIDIFICATION. 

In  the  early  part  of  spring  most  birds  seek  out  mates,  to  which 
they  attach  themselves  during  the  remainder  of  the  season.  Their 
first  care  is  to  select  a  proper  place  for  building  the  nest;  and, 
it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  little  surveyors  always  fix  upon  a 
location  admirably  adapted  to  their  habits,  and  the  shape,  strength, 
and  materials  of  the  nest  they  are  about  to  build:  it  is  almost, 
invariably  similar  to  the  places  chosen  for  the  like  purpose  by  all 
the  birds  of  the  same  species,  as  well  now  as  heretofore. 

The  nests  of  birds  are  as  various  in  form  and  material  as 
location.  Concealment  from  their  natural  enemies  is  a  great  object 
during  incubation;  this  they  are  taught  by  instinct,  and  by  this 
are  their  labours  governed:  thus,  the  bird  that  builds  its  nest  in 
the  cleft  of  a  tree,  often  coats  it  with  the  lichen  which  grows  on 
the  bark  of  the  adjoining  branch;  the  twigs,  of  which  a  Ring 
Dove's  is  composed,  appear,  at  a  cursory  view,  to  be  dead  portions 
16* 


188 


THE    AVIARY. 


of  the  bough  on  which  it  is  built ;  the  Linnet's  is  nearly  of  the 
same  colour  as  the  furze-bush  wherein  it  is  concealed ;  and  the 
Wren's  looks  like  a  heap  of  moss  at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  or  by  the 
bank  side,  where  it  is  built. 

Many  birds  merely  select  a  hole  in  a  tree,  bank,  rock,  or  old 
wall,  which  they  line  with  some  soft  substance;  others  choose 
similar  places,  without  making  any  addition  for  the  warmth  of 
their  eggs,  or  the  comfort  of  their  young  ones ;  some,  again,  ex- 
cavate holes  for  their  nests  with  their  bills ;  and  other  species  take 
possession  of  holes  made  in  this  manner,  which  have  been  de- 
serted by  the  birds  that  made  them.  Those  birds  which  do  not 
mate,  are  careless  as  to  the  construction  of  the  nest ;  and  several 
hens  frequently  lay  in  the  same.  The  smaller  tribes  of  birds  are 
more  expert  in  nidification  than  those  of  a 
larger  growth.  Among  others,  the  nest  of 
the  Tailor-bird  is  very  remarkable.  It  is 
constructed  of  one  or  two  leaves,  dexterously 
sewn  together  by  a  slender  vegetable  fila- 
ment ;  and  the  interior  is  filled  up  with  cotton. 
(Fig.  4.)  But  the  Cuckoo, — sweet  harbinger 
of  soft  airs,  herald  of  sunny  mornings,  the 
poet's  pet,  the  schoolboy's  delight, — that  mys- 
terious voice  which  like  echo  to  him  seems 
bodyless, — for  though  its  monotonous  melody 
is  often  heard,  it  is  but  rarely  seen,  and,  if 
seen,  as  rarely  known  to  be  a  Cuckoo  by  its 
beholder; — divested  of  the  toils  and  joys  which 
other  birds  experience,  neither  builds  a  nest, 
nor  hatches  nor  rears  its  offspring  :  the  pro- 
cess of  nidification,  as  well  as  that  of  incu- 
bation, is  performed  for  her  by  the  Hedge-sparrow,  the  Titlark, 
the  Yellow-hammer,  or  some  other  small  bird.  Leading  a  life  of 
lazy  luxury,  all  her  occupation  seems  to  be,  making  the  meadows 
merry  with  her  joyful  note.  She  selects  a  nest  which  suits  her 
fancy,  generally  a  Hedge-sparrow's,  and,  while  the  owner  is  on 
the  wing,  contrives  to  drop  her  egg  unperceived,  and  then,  leaving 
it  to  the  care  of  the  nurse  whom  she  has  selected,  never  visits  it 
again. 

INCUBATION. 

Shortly  after  the  nest  is  completed,  the  female  bird  lays  her 
eggs  in  it;   and   the  process  of  incubation,  or   sitting,   is   com- 


THE     AVIARY.  189 

inenced  when  she  has  deposited  the  number  usually  laid  by  birds 
of  her  species.  The  eggs  of  birds  are  nearly  all  of  the  same  form, 
but  they  differ  in  colour  as  well  as  size.  The  stronger,  or  more 
rapacious  birds,  lay  a  less  number  of  eggs  than  those  which  have 
numerous,  or  powerful  enemies,  and  are  not  endowed  with  the 
means  of  entering  into  an  equal  conflict  with  their  adversaries,  or 
destroying  other  individuals  of  a  lesser  rank.  By  this  disposition 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  prey  is  provided  for  the  rapacious;  the 
number  of  which,  not  being  subject  to  much  reduction  by  the 
ravages  of  other  creatures,  when  created,  are  produced  only  in 
such  small  quantities  as  not  to  be  destructive  to  entire  species: 
thus  the  balance  is  fairly  maintained. 

The  period  of  incubation  varies  with  different  species  of  birds : 
some  hatch  only  once  in  the  year;  others,  which  incubate  in  a 
shorter  time,  have  two  or  three, — and  some  few,  several  broods 
during  the  season. 

The  males  of  many  species  take  no  part  in  the  task,  but  leave 
the  business  of  incubation  entirely  to  the  female :  this  is  the  case 
with  most  of  the  birds  that  do  not  mate ;  some  of  these  are  even 
most  hostile  towards  the  young  when  hatched.  The  males  of 
other  species  feed  the  hen  while  she  sits,  and  a  great  number 
share  the  important  task  of  incubation. 

The  most  timid  bird,  during  the  period  of  sitting,  or  when 
rearing  its  nestlings,  seems  to  have  its  nature  changed;  the 
Common  Hen,  however  timid  she  may  be  on  other  occasions,  will 
carelessly  fly  out  at  the  dog,  or  assail  that  terror  of  the  poultry 
tribe,  the  Kite,  when  encompassed  by  her  beloved  brood;  and 
many  birds,  which  are  otherwise  remarkably  shy,  will  suffer  them- 
selves to  be  lifted  off  their  eggs  when  sitting.  Nature,  however, 
teaches  the  hen  to  drive  her  little  ones  from  her  side  when  they 
become  capable  of  providing  for  themselves,  in  order  that  she 
may  again  recover  sufficient  vigour  to  rear  a  second  brood. 

MIGRATION. 

There  is  nothing  more  remarkable  in  the  habits  of  birds,  than 
the  regular  migrations  performed  by  many  species  from  one 
country  to  another:  several  disappear  to  go  we  know  not  whither, 
and  return  we  know  not  whence;  but  the  places  of  emigration, 
as  well  as  the  time  of  the  departure,  and  reappearance  of  a 
great  portion  of  the  birds  of  passage,  are  perfectly  well  known 
to  naturalists.  The  causes  for  which  they  change  their  places  of 


190  THE    AVIARY. 

abode,  with  the  variation  of  the  seasons,  are,  principally,  the 
alteration  of  the  temperature  of  the  air,  and  a  deficiency  of  that 
peculiar  sort  of  food  which  they  prefer  during  one  part  of  the 
year,  in  each  of  the  countries  to  and  from  which  they  migrate. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Birds  form  a  distinct  class  (AvES,)  which  Linmeus  has  divided 
into  six  orders: — 1.  ACCIPITRES  (or  Predacious.)  2.  PICJE  (or 
Pies.)  3.  ANSERES  (or  Web-footed  Birds.)  4.  ORALLY  (or 
Waders.)  5.  GALLING  (or  Gallinaceous  Birds.)  6.  PASSERES 
(or  Birds  of  the  Sparrow  kind.)  Other  orders  have  been  added 
by  naturalists,  and  minor  alterations  made,  with  a  view  of  giving 
greater  clearness.  Pennant  and  Latham  have  separated  birds  into 
two  divisions, — LAND  BIRDS  and  WATER  BIRDS  ;  and  sub-divided 
them  into  nine  orders. 

There  are  other  systems  of  birds,  besides  the  above-mentioned. 
The  celebrated  naturalist,  Cuvier,  has  divided  the  class  into  six 
orders: — 1.  BIRDS  OF  PREY  (sub-divided  into  the  Diurnal,  as 
the  Eagle,  Hawk,  &c. ;  and  the  Nocturnal,  as  the  Owl.)  2.  PAS- 
SEREAUX  (the  Sparrow  tribe.)  3.  GRIMPEURS  (the  Climbers.) 
4.  GALLINACES  (the  Poultry  tribe.)  5.  ECHASSIERS  (the  Stilt- 
ed, or  Waders.)  6.  PALMIPEDES  (the  Web-footed.)  Another 
eminent  modern  zoologist,  N.  A.  Vigors,  Esq.  has  recently  brought 
into  notice  an  arrangement  called  the  Quinary  System,  which  is 
founded  on  the  supposition,  that  all  animals  may  be  separated 
and  sub-divided  into  groups  of  five;  as  for  instance: — Birds 
with  grasping  claws,  are  either  (1)  PREYERS,  (2)  PERCHERS, 

(3)  SCRATCHERS,  (4)  WADERS,  or  (5)  SWIMMERS. 

The  arrangement  which  will  be  adopted  in  this  article  is  as 
follows : — 

LAND  BIRDS. 

1.  RAPACIOUS.      I      3.    COLUMBINE.          I      5.    PASSERINE. 

2.  PIES.  I      4.    GALLINACEOUS,   j      6.    STRUTHIOUS. 

WATER  BIRDS. 

7.  WADERS. 

8.  WADERS,  WITH  PINNATED  FEET. 

9.  WEB-FOOTED. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the  principal  genera 
of  the  several  orders. 


THE    AVIARY. 


191 


RAPACIOUS. 

In  this  order  are  arranged  the  Vultures,  Falcons,  and  Owls. 
They  are  all  of  a  predacious  nature,  and  their  food  is  entirely  animal. 
-  5  The  characters  are  easily  distin- 

guishable :  the  bill  is  curved  and 
powerful;  on  each  side,  towards 
the  end,  there  is  a  projection,  like 
a  tooth;  the  base  is  frequently 
covered  with  a  naked  membrane, 
called  a  cere  (Fig.  5,  a;)  the  legs 
are  short,  and  the  claws  sharp- 
pointed  and  considerably  curved. 
(Figs.  5  and  6,  head  and  foot  of  the 
Eagle.)  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that 
the  females  of  birds  of  prey,  unlike 
those  of  the  other  orders,  are  rather 
larger  and  more  powerful  than  the  males. 

Vulture  (Vultur:) — This  is  the  first  genus  of  the  Rapacious 
order.  The  head  and  neck,  in  most  of  the  species,  are  destitute 
of  feathers ;  the  bill  is  curved  at  the  tip ; 
the  legs  are  powerful ;  but  the  talons  are 
not  so  formidable  in  their  appearance  as 
those  of  some  of  the  Eagles  and  Hawks. 
(Figs.  7  and  8,  head  and  foot  of  the 
Monk  Vulture.)  Vultures  are  nume- 
rous in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  earth, 
where  they  are  exceedingly  useful  in  de- 
vouring animal  remains,  which  would 
otherwise  infect  the  air.  They  have  been, 
aptly  enough,  termed  the  Scavengers  of 
Nature  in  the  animal  world.  In  northern 
climates,  where  they  would  be  of  less 
utility,  they  are  but  rarely  found.  They 
generally  build  their  nests  in  cliffs,  which  are  almost  inaccessible  to 
man :  the  hen  lays  two  eggs,  and  produces  but  one  brood  in  the  year. 
The  most  remarkable  bird  in  this  genus,  is  the  South  American 
Condor:  its  wings  extend,  when  spread,  to  the  immense  distance 
of  thirteen  or  fourteen  feet. 

The  Secretary,  which  has  been  by  some  authors,  classed  with 
the  WADERS,  and  by  others,  ranged  among  the  GALLING,  is  no\v 


192 


THE    AVIARY. 


generally  admitted  to  bear  a  close  affinity  to  the  Vultures.     Its 
prey  consists  of  snakes,  and  other  reptiles ;   for  the  destruction  of 

which   its  form  is  well 

9 


adapted:  the  beak  is 
short,  thick,  and  curved 
nearly  from  the  base, 
which  is  covered  with 
a  cere;  the  legs  are 
long  and  slender;  the 
toes  short,  the  talons 
blunt,  and  but  slightly 
curved.  These  birds 
are  found  in  the  south- 

ern    parts    of    Africa: 

they  build  their  nests  in  thick  bushes,  or  among  lofty  trees;    and 
live  in  pairs,  like  the  Eagles.      (Fig.  9,  the  Secretary.) 

Falcon  (Falco:) — This  genus  includes  all  the  Eagles.  Buz- 
10  zards,  Kites,  Hawks,  &c.      The  characters  are  a 

sharp,  powerful,  and  hooked  beak  and  claws,  and  a 
cere  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  in  which  the  nostrils 
are  placed  (See  Figs.  5  and  6.)  The  Falcons  may 
easily  be  distinguished  from  the  Vultures,  by  having 
the  head  well  clothed  with  feathers.  (Fig.  10,  head  of  Sparrow 
Hawk.) — The  Golden  Eagle  (Fig.  11)  measures  throe  or  four  feet. 

The  general  colour  of  its 
plumage  is  a  deep  brown, 
dashed  with  tawny  about  the 
head  and  neck,  and  variegat- 
ed, in  different  parts,  with 
darker  shades.  The  cere  is 
of  a  fine  golden  hue,  and  the 
bill  is  of  a  dark  brown 
colour;  the  legs  are  feather- 
ed, the  toes  yellow,  and  the 
claws  black.  The  eagle 
builds  in  mountainous  places, 
and  occasionally  breeds  in 
the  northern  parts  of  this 
country:  its  nest  is  compos- 
ed of  large  sticks,  rushes?, 
heath,  &c.  The  hen  often 
lays  three  eggs,  but  it  rarely  occurs  that  more  than  two  are  prolific 


THE    AVIARY. 


193 


The  Buzzards  are  the  most  common  of  all  this  genus  of  birds 
in  England:  they  are  so  indolent  in  their  habits,  that  they  often 
remain  perched  on  the  same  branch  for  many  hours  togethei. 
They  feed  on  all  such  kinds  of 
young  animals  as  they  can  catch 
and  overcome,  and  even,  occasion- 
ally, on  carrion.  The  colour  of 
Buzzards  varies  considerably,  even 
in  the  same  species :  the  coverts  of 
the  wings,  and  the  feathers  of  the 
head  and  neck,  are  generally  of  a 
deep  brown,  with  palish  yellow 
edges ;  the  throat  and  breast,  in 
some,  is  brown;  and  in  others, 
variegated  with  spots  on  a  yellow 
ground.  The  hen  Buzzard  fre- 
quently takes  possession  of,  and 
repairs,  a  deserted  crow's  nest:  she  lays  two  or  three  eggs,  which 
are  entirely  white,  or  white  spotted  with  yellow.  (Fig.  12,  the 
Moor  Buzzard.) 

The  Kite  (Fig.  13)  is  one  of  the  ignoble  class  of  Predacious 
birds :  possessed  of  but  little  courage,  it  never  attacks  any  bird  or 
animal  which  is  capable  of  offering  much  resistance:  chickens  are 
its  favourite  prey;  but  it  avoids 
entering  into  a  conflict  with  the 
hen,  and  rarely  attempts  to  carry 
off  any  but  such  as  have  strayed 
to  some  distance  from  the  parent 
bird.  The  Kite  is  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  Buzzard,  by  its 
forked  tail.  In  length  it  rather 
exceeds  two  feet ;  the  bill  is  much 
hooked,  and  furnished  with  bristles 
the  base;  the  eyes,  legs,  and 
cere,  are  yellow ;  the  nails  black ; 
the  head  and  chin  are  of  a  light  gray  colour,  streaked  with  brown ; 
the  neck,  breast,  and  tail  are  reddish;  the  back  is  brown,  and  the 
coverts  of  the  wings  black  and  white.  The  female  builds  in  moun- 
tainous places,  and  lays  two  eggs  of  a  whitish  colour,  spotted  with 
dull  yellow. 

The    Hawks,   in   former    times,   were   great   favourites    with 
persons  of  rank   in  this  country;    they  were  trained  up  for  the 


194  THE    AVIARY. 

diversion  of  falconry,  and  supported  at  an  immense  expense. 
Even  the  ladies,  in  those  days,  enjoyed  the  diversion  of  hawking; 
and  we  frequently  find  figures  of  noble  dames  of  by-gone  times, 
sculptured  with  Hawks  on  their  hands.  Many  volumes  have  been 
written  on  the  mode  of  training  these  birds,  and  fortunes  have  been 
spent  upon  them.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Third,  it  was  made 
felony  to  steal  them;  and  a  person  who  took  a  Hawk's  eggs 
even  on  his  own  land,  was  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  a  yeai 
and  a  day,  and  a  fine  at  the  king's  pleasure.  The  Duke  of  St. 
Alban's,  who  is  hereditary  Grand  Falconer  of  England,  has,  in  a 
slight  degree,  lately  renewed  the  sport  of  Hawking. 

The  Jer-Falcon,  the  Lanner,  the  Kestrel,  the  Merlin,  the 
Hobby,  &c.  were  used  in  falconry.  Of  these,  the  Jer-Falcon  was 
accounted  the  most  intrepid  and  valuable. 

None  of  the  Hawks  possess  any  gaiety  of  plumage ;  but  some 
of  them  are  certainly  very  elegant  in  their  forms.  The  species 

best  known  in  this  country  is, 
probably,  the  Sparrow  Hawk 
(Fig.  14,)  a  very  bold  and  cou- 
rageous bird,  which  commits 
great  destruction  among  Pi- 
geons. The  female  lays  four 
or  five  eggs,  and  builds  her 
nest  in  high  trees,  or  holes  in 
rocks,  and  sometimes  adopts  the  forsaken  nest  of  a  Crow.  In  the 
winter,  Sparrow  Hawks  often  resort  to  the  roofs  and  steeples  of 
churches  in  the  metropolis,  and  commit  great  havoc  among  the 
flights  of  the  pigeon-fanciers. 

Owl  (Strix:) — In  this  genus,  which  is  the  third  of  the  Acci- 
PITRES,  or  Rapacious  Birds,  the  bill  is  hooked,  bristled  at  the  base, 
and  without  any  cere;  the  claws  are  strong  and  curved  (Fig.  15 

and  16,  head  and  foot  of  the 
Brown  Owl;)  the  tongue  is 
bifid ;  the  eyes,  head,  and  ears 
large:  a  circle  of  soft  \vhite 
feathers  surrounds  the  eyes, 
which  are  so  formed,  that  the 
birds  of  this  genus  are  capable 
of  pursuing  their  prey  with  very  little  light.  Although  the  greater 
part  of  the  Owls  are  nocturnal  birds,  some  species  prey  during 
the  day-time;  and  these,  it  has  been  observed,  bear  a  greater 
resemblance  to  the  Hawks  than  the  rest  of  the  genus. 


THE    AVIARY. 


195 


The  Owls  may  be  divided  into  two  classes;  namely, — those 
with,  and  those  without  tufts  of  feathers  growing  up  from  the  head, 
like  ears,  or  horns.  In  the  former  class,  the  Great  Horned  Owl, 
which  is  sometimes  found  in  England,  is  most  conspicuous:  it  is 
the  largest  of  the  genus,  being  nearly  equal  in  size  to  an  Eagle ; 
it  builds  in  rocks,  or  mountains,  and  feeds  on  young  hares,  rabbits, 
and  even  Pheasants  and  Grouse. 

The  Long-eared  Owl  (Fig.  17)  is  well  known  in  this  country. 
It  is  about  fourteen  inches  in  length ;  its  plumage  is  marked  with 
various  shades  of  brown,  yellow, 
and  cream  colour ;  the  legs  and  feet 
are  covered  with  feathers.  It  in- 
habits ruined  buildings  and  hollow 
trees,  and  the  hen  lays  four  or  five 
eggs. — The  Short -eared  Owl  is 
nearly  of  the  same  size  as  the  bird 
we  have  just  noticed:  its  horns 
never  consist  of  more  than  three 
feathers,  while  those  of  the  Long- 
eared  Owl  are  composed  of  six. 
The  Short-eared  Owl  flies  by  day ; 
it  is  migratory,  visiting  this  country  in  the  latter  end  of  the  year, 
and  departing  again  in  the  spring. 

The  White  Owl,  Barn  Owl,  or  Screech  Owl,  and  the  Brown 
Ivy  Owl,  are  very  common  birds.  The  White  Owl  inhabits 
barns,  out-houses,  &c.  Its  feathers  are  principally  of  a  fine  buff 
colour,  speckled  with  black  and  white ;  the  legs  are  feathered  to 
the  toes,  and  the  wings  extend  beyond  the  tail.  It  lays  four 
or  five  eggs,  of  a  whitish  colour,  in  the  holes  of  walls.  Its  food 
generally  consists  of  mice,  of  which  it  devours  great  numbers; — 
swallowing  them  entire,  and,  afterwards, 
throwing  up  the  bones,  skin,  &c.  in  small 
round  masses. — The  Brown  Owl  frequents 
woods,  and  builds  in  hollows  of  trees.  Its 
plumage  is  diversified  with  brown,  black, 
white,  and  yellow;  it  is  feathered  to  the 
toes,  and  feeds  on  mice,  moles,  &c.  Some 
of  this  genus  are  remarkable  for  the  small- 
ness  of  their  size :  there  is  a  Siberian  species 
which  barely  exceeds  a  Sparrow  in  bulk ; 
and  another,  the  Little  Owl  (Fig.  18,)  which  is  not  much  larger 
than  the  Thrush:  it  is  occasionally  found  in  England,  and  sees 
17 


196  THE    AVIARY. 

better  by  day  than  night.  It  preys  on  small  birds,  mice,  bats, 
large  insects,  &c.  It  plucks  the  feathers  from  the  birds  which  it 
catches,  tears  them  to  pieces,  and  swallows  them  by  morsels. 
Its  plumage  is  brown,  spotted  with  white,  and  a  black  edge  borders 
the  circular  feathers  on  the  face,  which  are  also  white. 

PIES. 

This  order  (Pic^:  of  Limraus)  comprises  a  great  number  of 
birds,  which  differ  materially  in  the  shape  of  their  bills  and  claws, 
and  feed  on  various  substances, — insects,  fish,  flesh,  &c.  The  food 
of  the  greater  part  of  them  is,  however,  of  a  vegetable  nature. 
Among  the  Pic  IE  are  classed  the  Crows,  Woodpeckers,  Birds  of 
Paradise,  Humming-birds,  Jays,  Parrots,  Toucans,  &c. 

Shrike  (Lanius:) — The  Shrike  has  been,  by  most  authors, 
placed  in  this  order;  but,  notwithstanding  the  smallness  of  its 
size  (being  no  bigger  than  a  Thrush,)  and  the  delicacy  of  its  form, 
other  naturalists,  on  account  of  its  extraordinary  powers  and  ra- 
pacious disposition,  have  arranged  it  with  the  ACCIPITRES,  or 
Rapacious  Birds.  The  genus  is  distinguished  by  the  following 
characteristics: — a  strong  bill,  hooked  at  the  end,  but  straight 
towards  the  base,  which  is  fur- 
nished with  bristles ;  no  cere ;  the 
upper  mandible  notched  near  the 
tip ;  the  end  of  the  tongue  divided ; 
and  the  middle  and  outer  toes 
connected  as  .far  as  the  first  joint.  (Figs.  19  &  20,  foot  and  beak  of 
the  Great  Ash-coloured  Shrike.) 

Endowed  with  the  most  astonishing  courage,  the  Shrike  will 
attack  Crows,  Magpies,  Partridges,  and  even  some  of  the  powerful 
tribe  of  Falcons,  and  chase  them  from  the  neighbourhood  of  its 
nest.  Incapable  of  tearing  in  pieces  those  small  birds  and  animals, 
on  which  it  preys,  by  means  of  its  clawsj  it  very  dexterously  fixes 
them  on  a  thorn,  and  there  separates  their  limbs  with  its  bill.  To 
this  singular  habit  the  Shrike,  doubtless^  owes  its  English  name 
of  the  Butcher-bird.  Pennant  observes,  that  even  when  confined 
in  a  cage,  the  Shrike  will  fix  its  food  against  the  wires  before  it 
begins  to  eat;  and  a  traveller  in  Russia  states,  that  a  Butcher-bird, 
which  he  had  procured  in  that  country,  and  taught  to  perch  on  a 
stick,  sharpened  at  one  end,  would  seize  any  small  bird  that  was 
let  loose  in  the  apartment,  strangle  it  in  an  instant,  and  then 
forcibly  transfix  it  on  the  stick  with  its  bill  and  claws.  If  several 


THE    AVIARY.  197 

birds  were  given  to  him,  lie  would  use  them  all  in  the  same 
manner;  and,  when  properly  fixed,  leave  them  dangling  by  the 
neck  in  his  little  larder,  until  his  appetite  urged  him  to  devour 
them.  In  addition  to  this  curious  habit,  the  Shrike  is  said  to 
imitate  the  notes  of  small  singing-birds,  in  order  to  draw  them 
near  its  haunts;  and  in  America,  we  are  told,  the  Butcher-birds 
bait  thorns  with  grasshoppers,  to  decoy  the  lesser  insectivorous 
birds  into  situations  where  they  may  easily  be  seized.  That  the 
Shrike  transfixes  insects  on  which  it  preys,  as  well  as  flesh,  in  the 
manner  described,  we  see  no  reason  to  doubt;  and,  it  may  be, 
that  it  has  killed  other  birds  which  attempted  to  despoil  it  of  its 
food:  but  it  is  more  probable  that  the  insects  are  so  placed,  after 
the  Shrike  has  had  a  full  meal,  by  way  of  reserve  for  another 
occasion,  rather  than  as  a  bait  to  other  birds. 

The  Great  Ash-coloured  Shrike  (Fig.  21)  is  about  ten  inches 
in  length;  a  black  stripe  passes  from  the  beak  along  the  side  of  the 

head,  beyond  the  eye;  the 
upper  parts  of  the  plumage 
are  of  a  bluish  ash-colour ; 
all  the  under  parts,  and  the 
edges  of  the  tail,  are  white ; 
a  bar  of  the  same  colour 
crosses  the  wing.  In  the 
cultivated  parts  of  England 

this  bird  is  rarely  seen.      It 

builds  in  trees,  and  the  female  lays  five  or  six  eggs  of  a  dusky 
green  colour,  variegated  at  the  larger  end  with  dark  spots. 

The  Lesser,  or  Red-backed  Shrike,  is  a  smaller  species  of 
this  genus;  similar  in  form,  but  different  in  plumage,  to  the 
Ash-coloured  Butcher-bird.  The  colours  of  some  of  the  foreign 
Shrikes  are  remarkably  beautiful :  varieties  of  them  are  found  in 
Africa,  as  well  as  in  different  parts  of  Europe  and  the  New  World; 
all  of  which  transfix  their  prey  in  the  manner  we  have  described. 
Parrot  (Psittacus:) — This  genus  contains  a  great  number  of 
species:  the  distinguishing  charac- 
ters, are  a  hooked  beak ;  the  tongue 
obtuse  and  fleshy ;  nostrils  situated  on 

!'  •  ijj  ^-gi^--— n^      the  base  of  the  beak  (Figs.  22  and  23, 

tongue  and  beak  of  the  Parrot;)  and 
the  feet  scansorial, — that  is,with  two 
of  the  toes  placed  forwards,  and  two  backwards;  being  thus  well 
adapted  for  climbing.  (See  foot  of  the  Woodpecker,  p.  207.) 


198 


THE    AVIARY. 


These  birds  are  inhabitants  of  the  warm  regions  of  Asia, 
Africa  and  America;  their  chief  food,  in  a  natural  state,  consists 
of  fruits  and  berries;  and  their  mode  of  feeding  is  singular:  they 
hold  what  they  are  about  to  eat  in  their  claws,  and,  in  bringing  it 
to  their  mouths,  turn  the  foot  outwards;  while  doing  this,  the 
bird  stands  on  its  other  leg.  The  Parrots  use  their  bills  in  climb- 
ing, as  well  as  feeding.  Unlike  most  other  birds,  they  have 
the  upper  mandible  of  the  beak  separated  from  the  skull-bone: 
they  are  thus  enabled,  notwithstanding  the  bill  is  so  much  hooked, 
to  open  their  mouths  sufficiently  wide  to  receive  their  food  with- 
out difficulty. 

The  power  possessed  by  birds  of  this  genus,  of  imitating  the 
human  voice,  and  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  have  rendered 
them  great  domestic  favourites.  Their  faculty  of  imitating  sounds 
is  almost  as  great  as  that  of  monkeys  in  mimicking  actions.  Their 
natural  notes  are,  for  the  most  part,  exceedingly  harsh  and  dis- 
cordant; so  that,  however  imperfectly  the  splendid  pupil  may 
copy  the  tones  of  its  mistress  (and  a  Parrot's  teachers  are  usually 
females,)  it  is  a  much  more  agreeable  companion  than  an  untaught 
bird  of  this  genus,  which  can  only  scream  "  its  native  wood-notes 
wild."  Goldsmith  remarks,  that  in  going  through  France,  he 
could  not  help  remarking  how  much  plainer  the  Parrots  there 
spoke  French,  than  those  in  his  own  country  spoke  English.  He 
was  inclined  to  ascribe  this  to  the  different  qualities  of  the  two 
languages;  but  a  friend  set  him  right,  by  assuring  him,  that  the 
French  women  scarcely  did  anything  else  the  whole  day,  but 
instruct  their  pupils ;  and  that  this  con- 
stant schooling  made  the  birds  perfect 
in  their  lessons. — In  this  genus  are 
found  the  gorgeous  Macaws,  the  largest 
of  the  Parrot  kind,  which,  for  splendour 
of  plumage,  may  claim  precedence  of 
nearly  all  the  feathered  tribe.  One  of 
the  finest  of  the  group  is  the  Blue  and 
Yellow  Macaw  (Fig.  24:)  the  upper 
parts  of  its  body  are  of  a  most  exquisite 
glossy  and  sparkling  azure;  the  under 
parts  are  of  a  rich  and  vivid  yellow ; 
the  cheeks  are  marked  with  three  lines 
of  small  black  feathers,  on  a  white 
ground,  and  tinted  with  flesh  colour;  the  throat  is  ornamented 
with  a  fine  stripe,  or  collar,  of  a  greenish  black;  and  the  feathers 


THE    AVIARY.  199 

on  the  head  are  of  a  green  hue,  partaking,  in  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  yellow.  The  Great  Green  Macaw,  and  the  Deep  Blue 
Macaw,  are  scarcely  less  beautiful ;  and  even  some  of  the  Common 
Parrots,  although  inferior  to  the  magnificent  Macaws  in  size,  are 
certainly  not  so  in  splendour  of  plumage. 

The  Cockatoos,  in  a  state  of  nature,  like  the  other  birds  of  this 
genus,  live  upon  vegetable  substances  and  seeds:  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  an  elegant  crest  of  feathers,  often  of  a  different 
colour  to  the  rest  of  the  plumage,  and  which  may  be  raised  or 
depressed  at  will.  There  are  several  species  of  these  birds.  The 
Great  Black  Cockatoo,  which,  Buffon  sportively  remarks,  may  be 
called  the  negro  of  the  Cockatoos  (as  they  are  generally  white,)  is 
as  large  as  a  Macaw:  the  crest  is  of  a  lightish  gray;  the  rest  of 
the  plumage  is  of  a  bluish  black,  or  dark  lead  colour :  this  bird 
is  a  native  of  Ceylon,  and,  we  believe,  the  largest  species  of  the 
Cockatoo. 

The  Paroquets  are  less  than  the  Common  Parrots;  some  of 
the  varieties  are  of  very  brilliant  plumage :  their  tails  are  long ; 
and  they  are  principally  natives  of  the  East  and  West  Indies. 
Among  those  most  generally  known,  are  the  Ring  Paroquet,  the 
Red-breasted  Paroquet,  and  the  Large  Paroquet. 

The  Lories  are  also  included  in  this  genus;  there  are  several 
species  of  them ;  among  which,  the  Scarlet  Lory  is  the  most  re- 
markable for  beauty  of  plumage. 

Toucan  (Ramphastos:) — The  characteristics  of  this  genus  are, 
a  large  convex  bill,  serrated  about  the  edges,  and  both  mandibles 
bent  at  the  apex  (Fig.  25,  beak 
of  the  Toucan;)  the  edges  of 
the  tongue  feathered ;  the  nostrils 
near  the  base  of  the  bill;  and  the 
feet  formed  for  climbing.  There 
are  several  species  of  the  Toucan:  they  are  mostly  natives  of  South 
America;  and  their  habits  and  general  conformation  are  nearly 
similar,  though  they  differ  in  size  and  colour.  They  feed  on 
vegetables,  fruits,  and  berries.  The  bill,  although  so  prodigiously 
large,  is  not  formed  for  a  weapon  of  attack,  being  so  exceedingly 
thin,  that  it  has  been  termed  a  mere  case  for  the  tongue,  with 
which  the  bird  takes  its  food  and  forms  its  nest.  The  nostrils  are 
placed  in  a  black  line  running  round  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  are 
nearly  covered  with  feathers:  this,  says  Edwards,  occasioned  our 
first  naturalists  to  say  it  was  without  nostrils,  and  set  them  on 
straining  their  wits  to  supply  that  want  some  other  way.  The 
17* 


200 


THE    AVIARY. 


Red-beaked  Toucan  (Fig.  26)  is  shaped  like  a  Jackdaw;    though 
no  bigger  than  a  Common  Pigeon,  its  bill  is  six  inches  and  a  half 

long,  and  more  than  two 
inches  deep.  The  plumage 
on  the  throat  is  white ;  there 
is  a  dash  of  fine  red  on  the 
breast ;  the  coverts  under  the 
tail  are  also  red,  and  those 
above,  yellow;  the  other 
parts  are  black;  the  claws, 
feet,  and  legs,  are  ash-co- 
loured; the  mandibles  are 
partly  red  and  partly  yellow 
the  base  of  the  lower  one  is  purplish,  and  its  point  black. 

Hornbill   (Buceros:) — This  genus  consists  of  birds  of  very 
large  size;    "  distinguished,5*  says  an  eminent  naturalist,  "  by  the 

excessive  size  of  their  beaks, 
which  are  often  still  farther 
remarkable  for  some  kind  of 
large  prominence  on  the  up- 
per mandible."  (Fig.  27, 
beak  of  Hornbill.)  The  use  of 
this  strange  process,  to  quote 
the  words  of  the  same  author,  in  his  description  of  the  Rhinoceros 
Bird,  is,  by  some,  supposed  to  be  that  of  tearing  out  the  entrails 
of  its  prey;  but  others  affirm,  that  it  is  not  of  a  predacious  nature, 
feeding  only  on  vegetable  substances.  The  Rhinoceros  Bird  is  as 
large  as  a  Turkey,  but  it  is  more  slender  in  its  shape ;  the  tail  is 
white,  crossed  by  a  black  bar ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  black. 
It  is  principally  found  in  the  East-India  Islands. 

Crow  (Corvus:) — This  genus  contains  several  species:  among 
them  are  reckoned  the  Common  Crow, 
the  Raven,  Jackdaw,  Chough,  Mag- 
pie, and  Jay.  The  characters  are,  a 
knife-shaped,  convex  bill  (Fig.  28, 
beak  of  the  Crow ; )  nostrils  covered 
with  reclining  bristly  feathers:  a  carti- 
laginous and  bifid  tongue,  and  ambu- 
latory feet  (Fig.  29,  foot  of  the  Crow.) 
The  crow  is  a  very  common  bird: 
it  feeds  on  carrion,  insects,  grain,  and, 
indeed,  on  almost  everything  that  comes  in  its  way:  it  is  an  enemy 


THE    AVIARY.  201 

both  to  the  sportsman  and  the  farmer :  it  not  only  carries  off  the 
eggs  of  Partridges,  to  feed  its  nestlings  with,  but  destroys  young 
game,  poultry,  and  Pigeons,  and  even  deprives  lambs  of  their 
eyes.  In  fact,  the  Crow  has  scarcely  a  friend  among  the  rustic 
population  of  this  country:  every  man's  hand  is  lifted  against  it; 
and  its  body  is  frequently  seen  nailed  as  a  trophy  to  barn-doors, 
with  those  of  the  fox,  the  pole-cat,  the  weasel,  and  the  hawk. 
The  Crow  generally  builds  its  nest  in  solitary  woods,  and  lays 
four  or  five  eggs. 

The  Raven,  according  to  a  classic  fable,  was  once  white;  but 
Apollo  compelled  him  to  assume  mourning  as  a  punishment  for 
being  the  bearer  of  some  unpleasant  tidings.  It  is  still  said  to  be 
a  bird  of  evil  omen ;  but  is,  nevertheless,  frequently  domesticated, 
and  taught  to  utter  words.  It  is  described  as  possessing  "  many 
diverting  and  mischievous  qualities;  active,  curious,  sagacious, 
impudent,  and  mischievous ;  by  nature,  a  glutton ;  by  habit,  a  thief; 
in  disposition,  a  miser;  and  in  practice,  a  rogue."  The  Raven, 
however,  evinces  an  extraordinary  degree  of  attachment  to  its 
nestlings.  Mr.  White,  in  his  Natural  History  of  Selborne,  men- 
tions a  large  oak,  on  the  topmost  branches  of  which  a  pair  of 
Ravens  had,  for  a  series  of  years,  fixed  their  residence:  at  length, 
the  day  arrived  when  the  wood  was  to  be  levelled: — "  It  was  in 
the  month  of  February,  when  Ravens  usually  sit:  the  saw  was 
applied  to  the  butt, — the  wedges  were  inserted  in  the  opening, — 
the  woods  echoed  to  the  blows  of  the  beetle,  or  mallet, — the  tree 
nodded  to  its  fall;  but  still  the  dam  (the  mother  Raven)  sat  on: 
at  last,  when  it  gave  way,  the  bird  was  flung  from  her  nest ;  and 
though  her  parental  affection  deserved  a  better  fate,  was  whipped 
down  by  the  twigs,  which  brought  her  dead  to  the  ground." 
Ravens  live  to  a  great  age ;  they  feed  on  carrion  and  small  birds ; 
and  build  on  high  trees,  or  solitary  eminences. 

The  Jackdaw  is  rather  less  than  the  Crow.  The  birds  of  this 
species  are  gregarious:  they  build  about  old,  ruinous  buildings, 
and  feed  on  insects,  fruit,  grain,  nuts,  &c.  The  Jackdaw,  like 
the  Magpie,  the  Jay,  and  the  Raven,  is  often  domesticated,  and 
taught  to  articulate.  A  very  absurd  custom  prevails,  of  slitting 
the  tongues  of  these  birds,  under  a  mistaken  idea  of  thus  im- 
proving their  powers  of  imitating  human  speech. 

In  days  long  past,  as  we  well  remember,  one  of  those  fine 
rocks, — which,  before  they  were  quarried  out  to  pave  the  streets 
of  Bristol,  rose  almost  perpendicularly  from  the  banks  of  the 
yellow  Avon, — was  the  abiding  place  of  innumerable  Daws;  they 


202  THE    AVIARY. 

built  in  its  clefts  and  crannies,  wholly  inaccessible  to  the  foot 
of  man,  behind  a  veil  of  ivy,  and  other  creeping  plants.  But 
the  boys  of  Clifton,  at  that  time,  frequently  lowered  one  of  their 
companions  by  a  rope  from  the  summit  of  the  stupendous  rock, 
Avho,  with  a  couple  of  satchels  slung  over  his  shoulders,  robbed 
the  nests  as  he  dangled  in  the  air;  and  descended  to  the  bank 
below,  heavily  laden  with  the  eggs  and  nestlings  of  the  Daws. 
The  writer  of  these  pages  has  frequently  indulged  in  such  freaks, 
thinking  them,  at  that  time,  matters  of  little  moment.  A  troop 
of  boys,  from  Bristol,  once,  in  his  presence,  essayed  this  perilous 
feat.  They  fixed  an  iron  bar  in  the  turf,  at  the  top  of  the 
rock,  wound  a  rope  round  it,  and  slung  the  boy,  who  was  to 
descend  by  one  end  of  it,  in  the  usual  manner.  The  youth  went 
over  the  edge  of  the  rock,  and  had  descended  thirty  or  forty  feet, 
when  those  above,  whose  duty  it  was  to  hold  the  other  end  of  the 
rope,  and  let  it  out  by  degrees,  perceived  the  bar,  round  which, 
for  safety's  sake,  it  was  wound,  moving  in  the  turf.  One  of  them 
quitted  his  place,  to  fix  the  bar  more  firmly :  the  others  imme- 
diately, in  a  state  of  extreme  terror,  dropped  the  rope : — the  boy 
who  was  descending,  suddenly  felt  it  slackened:  he  uttered  one 
shriek,  fell,  like  a  log,,  upon  the  rocky  bank  below,  and  was  dashed 
to  pieces.  Strange  to  say!  his  fate  did  not  deter  others  from 
following  the  same  pranks i  within  a  week,  a  bar  was  fixed  in  the 
same  turf,  and  a  boy  descended  that  identical  rock,  in  quest  of 
eggs  and  nestlings,  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

The  Magpie  is  petulant,  voracious,  and  thievish;  he  refuses 
scarcely  any  kind  of  food ;  he  will  rob  the  nests  of  other  birds  of 
their  eggs ;  and  <c  a  maimed  Lark,  or  chicken  separated  from  the 
hen,  are  to  him  sure  objects  of  spoil."  He  is  impudent  and  swag- 
gering, without  being  courageous:  and  not  only  steals  his  food, 
but  articles  that  are  of  no  use  to  him  whatever:  like  the  youthful 
miser,  he  frequently  puts  his  treasures  in  such  places,  that  he 
actually  conceals  them  from  himself.  The  Magpie's  nest  is  made 
of  thorns  dexterously  interwoven,  with  a  hole  at  the  side  for 
admittance,  and  furnished  with  a  lining  of  wool,  and  other  soft 
materials:  the  hen  lays  six  or  eight  eggs  of  a  pale  green  colour, 
with  black  spots. 

"  The  thievish  Jay"  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  British 
birds:  its  belly,  breast,  neck,  and  back,  are  purple,  tinged  with 
gray;  and  the  greater  wing-coverts  beautifully  barred  with  black, 
blue,  and  white.  Jays  feed  on  acorns,  berries,  and  fruit;  but 
they  do  not  restrict  themselves  entirely  to  a  vegetable  diet,  as 


THE    AVIARY.  203 

they  will  sometimes  destroy  chickens,  and  even  carry  off  birds  that 
have  been  caught  in  traps,  or  with  bird-lime.  The  Jay  is  exceedingly 
restless  and  noisy;  "  frequently  de- 
priving the  anxious  gunner  of  his 
intended  prey,  by  alarming,  too  soon, 
his  destined  victim;  for,  the  mo- 
ment it  espies  a  person,  it  sets  up  a 
harsh,  chattering  scream,  whereby 
its  associates,  and  all  others,  know 
that  an  enemy  is  near."  The  Jay's 
nest  is  composed  of  roots  and  twigs : 
it  builds  in  woods,  and  usually  lays 
five  eggs  of  a  dull  white  colour, 
marked  with  brown.  The  young  remain  with  the  old  birds  until 
the  pairing  time.  (Fig.  30,  the  Jay). 

Rooks  are  well-known  birds,  but  they  are  not  so  numerous  as 
they  formerly  were ;  for,  in  times  gone  by,  almost  every  mansion 
possessed  a  busy,  clamorous,  city  of  Rooks  among  its  stately 
avenues,  or  encircling  belt  of  lofty  elms;  and  it  was  pleasant  to  see 
the  Rook  winging  homeward  at  dusk  to  his  habitation,  "  far,  far 
away," — to  hear  the  many  tenants  of  a  tree,  clamour,  even  after  it 
was  dark,  as  if,  on  account  of  the  late  arrivals  of  some  of  the  family, 
arrangements  had  not  yet  been  made  for  the  night, — to  watch  an 
old  Rook  march,  solemnly  as  an  undertaker  at  a  funeral,  after 
the  plough,  and,  ever  and  anon,  appear  to  condescend  to  pacify  his 
appetite,  by  gobbling  up  one  of  the  larvae  of  the  chafer,  which  had 
been  turned  out  by  the  share.  Although  petulant  and  quarrelsome 
at  times,  and  however  a  Rookery  may  be  disturbed  by  intestine 
broils,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  moral  dignity  about  these  birds. 
They  bicker  egregiously,  even  with  a  female  Rook,  on  ordinary 
occasions,  but  no  sooner  does  she  lay,  than  all  her  neighbours  treat 
her  with  the  greatest  respect,  and  suffer  her  to  pursue  the  labour 
of  incubation  perfectly  unmolested.  Should  a  stray  Rook  enter  a 
community,  he  is  immediately  set  upon  and  expelled;  by  this 
die  Rooks  at  once  prove,  that  they  have  a  considerable  portion  of 
sagacity,  and  are  totally  deficient  in  the  laudable  virtue  of  hospi- 
tality. They  begin  to  build  about  the  latter  end  of  February; 
and  it  is  truly  amusing  to  observe  the  cunning  they  exhibit,  and 
the  contests  that  occur  among  them,  to  obtain  possession  of  a 
twig.  We  have  frequently  seen  the  labours  of  a  pair  of  young 
Rooks  for  many  days,  demolished,  and  every  atom  of  the  nest 
carried  off,  in  as  many  minutes,  while  the  industrious  and  inno- 


204 


THE    AVIARY. 


cent  pair,  as  yet  unversed  in  the  ways  of  Rookeries,  were  both  at 

some  little  distance,  eagerly  intent  on  increasing  their  little  store 

of  sticks. 

Roller  (Coracias:) — The  Roller,  or  Garrulous  Roller  (which 

name  it  has  obtained  from   the  chattering  noise  it  makes,)   has  a 
31  straight  black  bill,  hooked  at  the  point, 

and  the  base  covered  with  bristles  (Fig.  31;) 
there  is  a  wart  below  each  ear ;  the  eye  is 
encircled  with  a  naked  skin  of  a  yellow 
colour. 
The  Roller  is  about  the  size  of  the  Jay;   its  plumage  displays 

an  exquisite  union  of  the  most  beautiful  shades  of  blue  and  green, 

mixed  with  white,  reddish  brown,  and  black.  It  feeds  on  worms, 
seeds,  berries,  &c.  and  is  common  in  every 
part  of  Germany,  but  rare  in  this  country. 
This  bird  is  said  to  be  migratory  in  May 
and  September.  It  generally  builds  its  nest 
in  birch-trees;  but  it  is  stated  that  in 
those  countries  where  wood  is  scarce,  as  in 
Malta,  and  some  parts  of  Africa,  the  Roller 
makes  its  nest  on  the  ground : — "  If  this 
be  the  fact,"  observes  Buffon,  "  it  will 
follow,  that  the  instincts  of  animals  can  be 
modified  by  situation,  climate,  &c."  The 
eggs  are  of  a  pale  green  colour,  with  nu- 
merous dull  spots ;  they  are  about  the  size 

of  those  of  a  Pigeon.      (Fig.  32,  the  Garrulous  Roller.) 

Paradise  (Paradisea:) — There  are  several  species  of  this  genus, 

all  of  which  are  remarkable   for  the    beauty  of  their    plumage. 

The  characters  are,  a  somewhat  lengthened,  slightly-curved,  and 
sharp-pointed  bill,  beset  with  soft  feathers 
at  the  base ;  and  in  most  of  the  species, 
certain  peculiarly  constructed  feathers,  ex- 
ceeding the  rest  of  the  plumage  in  length, 
spring  from  beneath  the  wings.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  that  the  Birds  of  Pa- 
radise were  continually  on  the  wing,  and 
destitute  of  legs  and  feet:  this  idea  has, 
however,  been  exploded ;  in  fact,  the  legs 

and  feet  of  the  Birds  of  Paradise  are  remarkably  large  and  stout, 

in  proportion  to  their  size.      (Figs.  33  and  34,  beak  and  claw  of  the 

Greater,  or  Common  Bird  of  Paradise.) 


THE    AVIARY. 


205 


Among  the  spicy  and  luxuriant  groves  of  the  Philippine  and 
other  Indian  Islands,  the  Birds  of  Paradise  associate  in  immense 
numbers.  It  is  a  popular  error  that 
they  always  follow  the  king  bird, 
who  is  distinguished  by  the  exceed- 
ing beauty  of  his  plumage:  he  is 
about  the  size  of  a  blackbird;  two 
filaments  proceed  from  the  tail,  which 
are  mere  shafts,  until  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  extremities,  where 
they  become  bearded  on  one  side, 
and  terminate  in  a  large  circle,  open 
in  the  centre,  of  an  emerald  co- 
lour, bright,  and  ever-varying.  The 
Greater,  or  Common  Bird  of  Para- 
dise (Fig.  35,)  is  principally  remark- 
able for  the  peculiar  feathers,  of  a 
fine  light  yellow  colour,  terminating  in  white,  which,  emerging 
from  beneath  the  wings,  extend  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
the  feathers  of  the  tail.  The  webs  of  these  beautiful  plaits  are 
open,  and  resemble  very  fine  hairs. 

The  Gold-breasted  Bird  of  Paradise  is  about  the  size  of  a 
Dove:  its  head,  cheeks,  back,  tail,  wings,  and  part  of  the  throat, 
are  of  a  fine  black,  shaded  with  violet:  its  neck  and  breast  are  of 
a  gold  colour,  and  a  fine  band  crosses  the  back  of  the  neck,  of  an 
united  and  varying  tint  of  gold,  green,  red,  and  violet.  Several 
black  feathers,  the  beards  of  which  are  separated  like  those  of  the 
Ostrich,  point  upwards,  and,  as  it  were, 
embrace  the  wings;  and  three  long  black 
filaments,  terminating  in  oval  webs,  spring 
from  each  side  of  the  head,  diverging  in 
angular  forms,  and  extend  to  a  fourth  part 
of  the  length  of  the  tail* — The  genus  com- 
prises several  species,  besides  those  which 
we  have  noticed;  among  them  the  Lyra  is 
conspicuous  from  the  form  and  beauty  of  its 
tail,  which  bears  a  singular  resemblance  to 
the  musical  instrument  from  which  the  bird 
takes  its  name  (Fig.  36,  tail  of  the  Lyra.) 
In  the  evening,  the  Birds  of  Paradise  perch  on  lofty  trees,  in 
which  the  natives  lie  concealed  for  the  purpose  of  shooting  them 
with  blunt  arrows.  Their  principal  food  is  said  to  be  the  larger 


206  THE    AVIARY. 

kind  of  butterflies  and  moths.  The  absurd  notion  of  the  Birds  of 
Paradise  wanting  legs  and  feet,  was,  doubtless,  occasioned  by  the 
natives  of  the  islands,  where  they  are  taken,  cutting  off  those  parts 
before  they  sold  the  stuffed  birds. 

Cuckoo  (Cuculus:) — Of  all  the  species  of  this  genus,  the  Com- 
37    __  mon  Cuckoo  alone  visits  this  country.      The 

general  characters  are,  the  bill  small  and 
smooth,  tapering  and  arched;  the  tongue 
short,  entire,  membranaceous,  and  termi- 
nated by  hairs;  and  the  feet  scansorial. 
(Figs.  37  and  38,  beak  and  foot  of  the 
Cuckoo.)  A  very  distinguishing  mark  of 
the  Common  Cuckoo  is  the  roundness  and 
prominence  of  its  nostrils. 

In  shape,  the  Common  Cuckoo  (Fig.  39)  is  something  like  a 
Magpie,  and  rather  less  in  size  than  a  pigeon ;  the  head,  the  upper 

part  of  the  body,  the  wings, 
and  tail,  are  finely  marked 
with  black  and  tawny  stripes; 
the  ground-colour  of  the  body 
is  gray;  there  are  a  few  white 
spots  on  its  head,  and  on  the 
exterior  edges  of  the  feathers 
of  the  tail:  its  legs  are  short 
and  yellow.  It  is  not  known 
where  this  bird  passes  the 
winter.  Some  assert  that  it  is  migratory;  and  others,  that  it  re- 
mains in  hollow  trees,  &c.  in  a  torpid  state,  during  the  cold  season. 
It  would  appear  from  the  statements  of  some  naturalists,  that  the 
Cuckoo  does  not  always  deposit  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds ; 
although  this  seems  to  be  its  general  custom. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  numerous:  one  of  them,  the 
Honey  Cuckoo,  is  very  singular  in  its  habits.  It  is  found  in  the 
interior  of  Africa;  "  it  indicates  to  honey-hunters  where  the  nests 
of  wild  bees  are  to  be  found.  It  calls  them  with  a  cheerful  cry, 
which  they  answer;  and,  on  finding  itself  recognised,  flies  and 
hovers  over  a  hollow  tree  containing  the  honey.  While  they  are 
occupied  in  collecting  it,  the. bird  goes  to  a  little  distance,  where 
he  observes  all  that  passes;  and  the  hunters,  when  they  have 
helped  themselves,  take  care  to  leave  him  his  portion  of  the  food. 
There  is  the  Cuculus  Indicator  of  Linna?us,  otherwise  called  the 
Moroe,  Bee-Cuckoo,  or  Honey-Bird." 


1 


THE    AVIARY.  207 

The  note  of  this  bird  bears  no  similarity  to  that  of  the  Eu- 
ropean Cuckoo.  In  Dr.  Spelman's  account,  we  find  it  stated, 
that  in  the  morning  and  evening,  when  the  bird  feeds,  it  is  heard 
calling,  in  a  shrill  tone,  "  Cherr!  cherr!"  It  is  also  remarked,  in 
a  note  to  Buffon,  that  according  to  some  travellers,  the  cry  of 
this  bird  is  "Wicki!  wicki!"  and  this  word  signifies  honey,  in 
the  Hottentot  language. 

Woodpecker  (Picus :) — Woodpeckers  are  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  world  they  live  on  insects ;  in  search  of  which  they  are 
generally  seen  climbing  up  and  down  trees. 
They  are  admirably  calculated  for  their  mode 
of  life:  the  foot  of  the  Woodpecker  is  scan- 
serial  (Fig.  40 ; )  its  tongue  is  long  and  slender ; 
its  point  (Fig.  41,  a)  is  sharp  and  barbed;  it  is  furnished  with  a 
powerful  set  of  muscles,  affixed  to  two  long,  slender  and  elastic 
processes  of  the  os  hyoides,  or  bones  of  the  tongue,  which,  passing 

backward  close  to  the  arti- 
culation of  the  lower  man- 
dible (&,)  encircle  the  back 
part  of  the  head,  and  ter- 
minate (at  c)  on  the  frontal 
bone.  By  means  of  this  curious  apparatus,  the  bird  has  the 
power  of  darting  its  tongue  into  clefts  and  crevices  of  great  depth, 
where  it  transfixes  the  insects  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  also  capable, 
42  by  means  of  its  bill,  which  is  sharp,  strong,  and 

pointed,  of  boring  holes  in  trees.  The  tail  is 
composed  of  ten  remarkably  stiff  and  sharp- 
pointed  feathers  (Fig.  42;)  these  are  bent  in- 
wards, and  the  bird  supports  itself  upon  them 
when  climbing,  or  clinging  to  the  trunks  of  trees. 
Nearly  all  the  Woodpeckers  lay  their  eggs  in 
holes,  formed  by  the  birds'  bills,  except  those  of 
Guinea  and  Brazil,  which  suspend  their  curious 
habitations  from  slender  boughs,  "  where  neither  the  mischievous 
monkeys,  nor  the  numerous  snakes,  which,  in  vain,  wreath  their 
terrific  forms  round  the  trunks  below,  can  possibly  reach  them." 
It  is  worthy  of  observation,  that  the  Woodpeckers  in  other  parts 
of  the  world  do  not  even  line  the  holes,  in  which  they  lay  their 
eggs,  with  feathers,  wool,  or  any  material  whatever. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  this  genus.      Buffon,  in  his  account 
of  the  Yellow  Woodpecker  of  Cayenne,  says  that  the  natives  call 
it  the  Yellow  Carpenter.     There  is  also  a  three-toed  Woodpecker, 
18 


208 


THE    AVIARY. 


having  two  toes  before  and  one  behind:  both  of  these  birds,  like 
most  of  the  genus,  have  fine  plumage.  The  Green  Woodpecker 
43  is  a  well-known  English  species:  it  is 

called,  in  several  parts,  the  Laugher, 
from  its  making  a  noise  very  much  like 
laughing,  "  particularly  before  the  wel- 
come showers  of  spring."  The  Carolina 
Woodpecker  (Fig.  43)  is  rather  less  than 
the  Green  Woodpecker:  the  top  of  its 
head  and  neck  are  of  a  beautiful  scarlet 
colour;  the  breast  is  olive,  the  belly  red- 
dish, and  the  back,  wings  and  tail  black, 
with  markings  of  light  brown  and  white. 
The  smallest  of  the  genus  is  a  native  of 
South  America,  and  about  the  size  of  a  Wren. 

Kingfisher  (Alcedo:) — "The  little  Halcyon's  azure  plume" 
has  too  often  delighted  our  eyes,  while  "  reclining  beneath  the 
willow,"  to  suffer  us  to  pass  over 
this  favourite  of  the  poets  without 
a  notice.  The  characters  of  the 
genus  are, — a  straight,  strong,  and 
sharp  bill  (Fig.  44 ; )  a  short  sharp- 
pointed  tongue  (a;)  and  the  three 
lower  joints  of  the  exterior  toe  at- 
tached to  the  middle  one.  (Figs.  44 
and  45,  beak,  tongue,  and  foot  of  the  Kingfisher.) 

The  Common  Kingfisher  (Fig.  46)  is  larger  than  the  Swallow: 
the  upper  mandible  of  the  bill  is  black;  the  lower,  yellow:  the 
coverts  of  the  wings,  and  the  top 
of  the  head  are  dark  green,  spotted 
with  azure ;  the  belly  is  orange ;  and 
the  back  and  tail  are  of  a  brilliant 
blue.  This  bird  is  very  voracious ; 
it  preys  upon  small  fish : — hovering 
over  the  surface,  as  the  Hawk  above 
its  quarry,  the  Kingfisher,  as  soon 
as  an  opportunity  occurs,  darts 
with  unerring  aim  upon  its  victim. 
The  male  is  remarkable  for  its  attention  to  the  female  during 
incubation ;  he  brings  her  large  quantities  of  fish  to  the  nest  in 
which  she  is  sitting;  and  thus  the  hen  Kingfisher,  unlike  other 
birds,  is  always,  at  this  season,  in  excellent  condition.  As  the 


THE    AVIARY. 


209 


Woodpecker  bores  holes  in  trees,  so  does  the  Kingfisher,  by 
means  of  its  bill,  excavate  a  nest  in  the  bank  of  some  stream, 
in  which  there  is  plenty  of  fish.  The  nest-hole  is  usually  a  yard 
in  depth,  wider  at  the  bottom  than  the  top,  and  lined  with  the 
down  of  the  willow-tree. 

Hoopoe  (Upupa:) — The  characters  of  this  genus  are, — an 
obtuse,  short,  triangular  tongue;  a  convex,  bent,  obtuse  beak 
(Fig.  47,  beak  of  the  Hoopoe;)  and 
ambulatory  feet.  The  Common  Hoo- 
poe is  a  migratory  bird,  and  leaves 
our  northern  climate  about  the  end 
of  August;  in  appearance  it  is  about 
the  size  of  a  pigeon;  although,  in 
fact,  it  is  much  less  than  that  bird; — weighing,  when  stripped  of 
its  feathers,  about  three  ounces  only.  The  head  is  adorned  with 
a  crest,  which  the  bird  has  the 
power  of  raising  or  depressing  at 
will:  it  is  composed  of  two  series 

48  ^IBSV          of  feathers,  the  tops  of  which  are 

black  and  white,  and  the  other 
parts  of  a  pale  orange  colour; 
the  tail  is  black,  with  a  white 
crescent  on  it,  the  horns  of  which 
point  to  wards  its  extremity.  The 
wings  are  black,  transversely 
streaked  with  white.  The  Hoo- 
poe feeds  on  insects;  it  makes  no  nest,  but  lays  its  eggs  in  the 
hole  of  a  wall,  tree,  or  bank  (Fig.  48,  the  Hoopoe.) 

Humming  Bird  (Trochilus:) — This  is  a  very  large  genus  of 
49  _^  a  beautiful  and  interesting  species.  The  cha- 
racters are, — a  remarkably  fine  beak,  longer 
than  the  head,  and  terminating  in  a  delicate 
tube ;  the  upper  forming  a  sort  of  case  for  the  lower  mandible ; 
the  tongue  formed  of  two  threads,  tubular  and  filiform ;  and  the 
feet  ambulatory.  (Fig.  49,  beak  of  Humming  Bird.) 

The  Humming  Birds  in  America  are  as  numerous  as  butterflies 
here:  many  of  them  no  larger  than  bumblebees;  and  they  have 
been  described  as  hovering,  "  from  morn  till  dewy  eve,"  about 
the  flowers,  and  extracting  their  sweet  juices  without  ever  settling 
upon  them.  This  statement  is,  however,  erroneous;  for  birds 
have  scarcely  any  power  of  suction.  Wilson,  the  author  of  the 
American  Ornithology,  has  frequently  found  insects  in  the  crop  of 


210  THE    AVIARY. 

the  Trochilus  colubris;  and  the  experienced  Waterton  positively 
asserts,  that  Humming  Birds  feed  on  insects.  In  the  warm  regions 
they  live  in  the  fields  the  whole  year  round:  in  the  colder  climates 
they  remain  torpid  during  the  winter.  The  nest  of  the  Humming 
Bird  is  elegant,  and  delicate  as  its  fairy  architect:  the  materials 
of  which  it  is  composed,  are  chiefly  small  vegetable  fibres,  and 
fine  moss ;  it  is  lined  neatly,  and  suspended  from  the  bough  of 
the  citron,  the  orange,  or  the  pomegranate-tree.  The  eggs  of  the 
smallest  of  these  magnificent  little  beauties,  are  about  the  size  of 
a  small  pea,  and  the  male  and  female  both 
60  jf  incubate:  die  male  bird  relieves  his  mate 
in  the  morning  and  evening,  when  the 
flowers  are  sweetest,  and  just  refreshed  with 
dew.  The  Humming  Bird  does  not  derive 
its  name  from  its  note,  which  is  a  low 
chirrup,  interrupted,  and  rather  unpleasing, 
but  from  the  humming  noise  produced  by  the  quick  motion  of  its 
wings.  No  general  description  could  impart  an  idea  of  the  plumage 
of  these  birds, — they  differ  so  widely  in  their  hues:  the  breasts  of 
some  of  the  species  display  all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow,  visibly 
united,  but  so  finely  blended,  that  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the 
boundaries  of  either  (Fig.  50,  the  Humming  Bird.) 

In  the  genera  of  this  order,  which  our  limits  have  prevented  us 
from  noticing,  there  are  many  interesting  birds:  among  others,  the 
Oriole,  which  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe; — the  Nuthatch, 
a  bird  well  known  in  this  country,  which  lays  in  holes  of  trees, — 
frequently  those  deserted  by  the  Woodpecker; — the  Creeper,  con- 
taining a  great  number  of  species ;  the  most  common  of  which  are 
little  birds,  often  seen  in  this  country  run- 
ning about  trees,  like  mice,  and  frequently 
following  the  Woodpecker  in  search  of  those 
insects  which  the  larger  bird  has  disturbed 
in  its  operations; — the  Honey-eater,  remarkable  for  the  curious 
formation  of  its  tongue; — the  Wryneck,  Grakle,  &c.  (Fig.  51, 
head  of  Honey-eater ;  a,  the  end  of  the  bird's  tongue  more  dis- 
tinctly shown.) 

GALLINACEOUS. 

The  Gallinaceous  birds  are  such  as  are  allied,  in  many  parti- 
culars, to  the  Common  Fowl.  They  are  careless  in  the  structure 
of  their  nests,  and  lay  a  great  number  of  eggs.  Their  food  consists 


THE    AVIARY.  211 

of  grain,  seeds,  and,  in  some  cases,  insects.  To  this  order  belong 
the  Common  Fowl,  Pheasant,  Turkey,  Partridge,  Quail,  and  other 
53  birds  of  similar  habits.  Their  bills 

are  convex, rather  short,  and  strong ; 
the  upper  mandible  closing  over 
the  edges  of  the  lower.  Their  feet 
are  formed  for  scratching,  and  usu- 
ally connected  with  a  membrane,  as  far  as  the  first  joint.  (Figs.  52 
and  53,  foot  and  beak  of  Partridge.) 

Peacock  (Pavo:) — This  genus  occupies  a  very  distinguished 
place  among  the  GALLING.  The  head  of  the  Peacock  is  ornamented 
with  a  crest  of  slender  feathers,  the  colour  of  which,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  throat,  neck,  and  breast,  is  a  fine  golden-tinted  green; 
the  other  parts  of  the  plumage  either  partake  of  the  same  tints, 
or,  by  their  sober  hue,  afford  a  contrast  which  enhances  the 
beauty  of  the  head  and  train.  The  female,  which  is  not  distin- 
guished by  any  of  the  dazzling  plumage  of  the  cock,  lays  five  or 
seven  eggs,  and  sits  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  days.  The  young 
birds  are  very  difficult  to  rear,  and  do  not  shine  forth,  in  the  full 
pride  of  crest  and  train,  until  the  third  year.  Peacocks,  as  Avell 
as  Pheasants,  are,  occasionally  seen  entirely  white;  and,  as  is  also 
the  case  with  the  latter  birds,  the  hen  Peacocks,  after  they  have 
ceased  laying,  sometimes  acquire  the  plumage  of  the  cock. 

Juno's  chariot  was  said  to  be  drawn  by  a  team  of  these  beautiful 
creatures,  whose  trains  were  embellished  by  the  goddess  with  the 
hundred  eyes  of  Argus.  As  an  ornament  of  the  park  and  the  plea- 
sure-ground, the  Peacock  stands  unrivalled;  its  form  is  graceful, 
its  motions  elegant,  and  its  plumage  exquisite;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  its  voice  is  hideous,  its  appetite  voracious,  and  its  disposition 
quarrelsome.  An  object  more  splendid  than  the  Peacock,  proudly 
expanding  its  gorgeous  train,  and,  apparently,  delighting  in  the 
admiration  of  its  beholders,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive;  "  his  pace 
is  slow  and  solemn;  and  he  frequently  turns  slowly  and  gracefully 
round,  as  if  to  catch  the  sun-beams  in  every  direction,  and  produce 
new  colours  of  inconceivable  richness  and  beauty."  In  the  language 
of  a  great  naturalist,  its  matchless  plumage  seems  to  combine  all 
that  delights  the  eye  in  the  soft  and  delicate  tints  of  the  finest 
flowrers, — all  that  dazzles  it,  in  die  sparkling  lustre  of  gems, — and 
all  that  astonishes  it,  in  the  grand  display  of  the  rainbow.  What 
a  pity  it  is,  that  so  noble,  so  admirable  a  bird,  should  be  debased 
by  its  capricious  gluttony  and  unsociable  temper!  Its  natural 
food  is  grain,  seeds,  and  insects ;  but  of  these  it  will  destroy,  if  an 
18* 


212  THE    AVIARY. 

opportunity  occur,  even  more  than  it  can  eat.  Fond  of  roaming 
from  its  allotted  place  of  abode,  with  which  it  is  never  satisfied, 
the  Peacock  ascends  the  walls  which  arc  intended  to  confine  it, 
reaches  even  the  tops  of  the  highest  houses,  and  frequently  makes 
the  most  lamentable  ravages  in  the  gardens  adjacent.  It  will  root 
up  the  choicest  plants,  nip  off  the  tender  buds,  and  rake  seeds 
out  of  the  ground;  it  will  tear  the  thatch  out  of  a  building;  and, 
in  its  grave  recreations,  seems  to  be,  indeed,  most  ingeniously 
mischievous. 

The  Peacock  is  a  native  of  India.  Alexander  the  Great,  when 
he  first  beheld  these  birds,  was  so  delighted  with  the  magnificence 
of  their  plumage,  as  to  have  forbidden  any  person  to  destroy  one  of 
them  on  pain  of  death.  It  is  not  generally  known,  perhaps,  that 
the  splendid  set  of  feathers,  usually  called  the  tail  of  the  Peacock, 
spring,  in  fact,  from  the  lower  part  of  the  back :  the  true  tail 
being  short,  like  that  of  a  hen,  and  serving  to  support  the  long 
and  beautiful  feathers  which  compose  the  train.  These  feathers, 
and  the  crest,  constitute  the  characters  of  the  genus. 

Turkey  (Meleagris:) — The  bill  of  the  Turkey  is  short  and 
convex;  there  is  a  fleshy  appendage  on  the  base  of  the  upper 
mandible,  which  the  bird  is  capable  of  raising  or  contracting  at 
pleasure;  the  head  and  neck  are  covered  with  naked  flesh  of 
a  reddish  purple  hue;  the  nostrils  are  pointed  at  one  end,  and 
lodged  in  a  membrane ;  there  is  a  tuft  of  black  on  the  breast,  and 
the  legs  are  furnished  with  blunt  knobs,  or  the  rudiments  of  spurs. 
The  bird  has  the  power  of  extending  its  tail,  which  consists  of 
eighteen  feathers,  in  the  manner  of  a  Peacock.  Like  all  other 
domesticated  birds,  Turkeys  are  of  various  colours, — white,  black, 
gray,  speckled,  &c.  In  a  wild  state,  the  general  colour  of  the 
plumage  is  black ;  in  some  parts  it  is  of  a  variable  hue,  between 
bronze  colour,  glossy  green,  and  purple.  Turkeys  are  said  to  have 
been  originally  brought  from  the  New  World.  It  is  rather  sin- 
gular, that  the  young  of  these  birds,  which  are  so  particularly 
tender,  and  difficult  to  rear  in  this  country,  thrive  remarkably 
well  in  a  state  of  nature  among  the  wilds  of  Canada,  where  the 
tops  of  the  mountains  are,  during  a  great  part  of  the  year,  covered 
with  snow.  The  hen  Turkey  lays  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  eggs, 
which  are  whitish  and  rather  freckled.  She  begins  to  lay  early  in 
die  spring,  and  is  very  attentive  to  her  young,  but  rarely  has 
more  than  one  brood  in  the  year.  Ants  and  their  larvae,  and 
other  insects,  are  the  favourite  food  of  young  Turkeys. 

The  Turkey  has  been  very  correctly  described  as  being,  gene- 


THE    AVIARY. 


213 


rally  speaking,  notwithstanding  its  furious  disposition,  a  very 
cowardly  bird.  We  have  seen  him  fly  from  the  Common  Domestic 
Cock ;  and  he  will  do  so  from  almost  any  animal  or  bird  that  has 
courage  enough  to  face  him ;  but  to  those  who  are  awed  by  his 
important  strut,  great  size,  and  threatening  aspect,  he  is  truly 
tyrannical.  He  seerns  to  entertain  an  especial  aversion  to  lap- 
dogs:  if  he  have  the  good  fortune,  by  his  outward  show  of  courage, 
to  put  one  of  these,  or  any  other  small  animal,  or  a  bird, — even  a 
mouse,  or  a  Sparrow, — to  flight,  he  returns  to  his  hens,  "  strutting 
in  conscious  pride  of  his  valour." 

Pintado  (Numida:) — The  head  of  the  Pintado,  or  Guinea 
Fowl,  is  naked,  like  that  of  the  Turkey ;    and  it  carries  its  tail 
54  pendulous,  as  the  Partridge.      Its  plumage, 

although  plain  when  at  a  distance,  is  singu- 
larly beautiful  if  closely  examined:  the 
general  colour  is  a  darkish  gray,  sprinkled 
with  white,  round,  pearly  spots:  a  sort  of 
cone-shaped  horn  ornaments  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  from  the  sides  of  the  upper  man- 
dible depend  two  loose  wattles  (Fig.  54;) 
those  of  the  male  are  rather  blue ;  those  of  the  female  red. 

The  Guinea  Fowl  (Fig.  55)  was,  originally,  a  native  of  Africa, 
and  thence,  in  the  year  1508, 
introduced  to  America,  where  its 
numbers  increased  surprisingly. 
It  is  now  common  among  our 
poultry;  but  does  not  live  very 
amicably  with  the  other  domes- 
ticated birds ;  frequently  disturb- 
ing the  grave  Goose  and  busy  dame 
Partlet  with  its  loud  and  unmusical 
clamour,  its  petulant  sprightliness, 
and  assumption  of  a  dominion  which  it  is  incapable  of  maintaining. 
Its  flesh  is  very  much  like  that  of  the  Pheasant;  it  also  resembles 
that  bird  in  many  of  its  habits.  The  hen  lays  a  great  number  of 
eggs,  which  are  of  most  excellent  flavour.  In  ancient  Rome,  the 
Pintado  was  much  more  highly  prized,  as  an  article  of  luxury  for 
the  table,  than  with  us.  In  the  London  markets  its  price  seldom 
exceeds  that  of  a  fine  fowl. 

Pheasant  (Phasianus:) — With  the  exception  of  the  Peacock, 
the  birds  of  this  genus  are,  perhaps,  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
GALLING.  The  Pheasant  is  said  to  be  so  called,  from  Phasis,  a 


214 


THE    AVIARY. 


river  in  Asia,  whence  it  was  first  brought.  In  some  parts  -of 
England,  a  variety  is  found,  with  a  fine  white  ring  round  the  lower 
parts  of  the  neck.  There  is  another  sort,  with  plumage  as  white 
as  snow;  and  which,  it  is  said,  do  not  associate  with  the  common 
birds:  this  we  are  inclined  to  think  is  an  error;  for,  in  those 
late  and  stately  woods, — in  which  we  passed  our  holyday  hours  in 
the  spring-time  of  life,  robbing  the  provident  squirrel  of  all  the 
hazel-nuts  in  his  winter  horde  (to  the  shame  of  our  youth  be  it 
spoken!)  or  setting  wire-nooses,  as  poachers  do  for  hares,  to 
catch  the  lazy  adder,  in  order  to  enrich  our  miniature  museum 
with  his  fangs, — beneath  the  old  oak,  or  graceful  beech,  that  "  lady 
of  the  woods," — have  we,  more  than  once,  flushed  a  hen  Pheasant, 
white  as  a  pearl,  with  a  motley 
brood  about  her;  some  of  them 
without  even  a  feather  in  their 
plumage,  by  which  they  might 
claim  kin  to  the  attentive  mo- 
ther -  bird,  under  whose  wing 
they  had  been  nestled.  Several 
varieties,  of  extraordinary  bril- 
liancy of  plumage,  including 
those  admirable  birds,  the  Gold 
and  Silver  Pheasants  of  China, 
are  frequently  kept  in  Aviaries, 
of  which  they  form  a  most  dis- 
tinguished ornament.  The  Pea- 
cock Pheasant,  or  Iris  Pheasant 
of  Latham  (Fig.  56,)  is  described 
by  Edwards  as  being  one  of  the  greatest  beauties  in  nature.  We 
may  compare  it,  he  says,  to  sable,  thickly  set  with  shining  jewels 
of  various  colours.  Buffon  has  denominated  it  the  Epcrronnier, 
from  the  singular  fact  of  its  having  two  spurs  on  each  leg. 

In  a  state  of  nature,  Pheasants  are  very  attentive  to  their 
broods ;  but  they  become  careless  if  confined ;  it  is  usual,  there- 
fore, to  place  the  eggs  under  a  common  hen,  and  to  suffer  her  to 
bring  up  the  young  birds  when  hatched.  They  should,  if  possible, 
be  moderately  supplied  with  the  larvae  of  ants,  with  earwigs,  and 
other  small  insects:  when  grown  up,  they  may  be  fed  on  acorns, 
wheat  and  other  grain,  and  berries.  Young  Pheasants  are  often 
kept  under  large  nets,  stretched  over  a  group  of  shrubs,  in  parks 
or  pleasure-grounds;  and  in  such  situations,  if  properly  fed,  attain 
a  size  and  plumage  almost  equal  to  those  of  the  wild  ones.  The 


THE    AVIARY.  215 

male  crows  like  the  Common  Cock ;  and  the  female  lays  her  eggs, 
which  are  generally  from  ten  to  fifteen  in  number,  in  a  rude  nest 
of  dry  grass,  or  roots,  on  the  ground. 

Some  of  the  species  of  the  Domestic  Cock  are  still  found  in  a 
native  state  in  the  jungles  of  India:  however  beautiful  our  own 
chanticleer  may  be,  the  wild  birds,  in  their  native  climes,  exceed 
him  considerably  in  splendour  of  plumage.  Several  varieties 
of  these  most  useful  birds  have  been  imported  from  different 
countries,  to  enrich  and  embellish  our  farm-yards:  they  are  to  be 
found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world; — every  country,  and, 
frequently,  even  districts  of  the  same  country,  producing  different 
kinds.  These  innumerable  distinctions  are,  doubtless,  to  be  attri- 
buted to  their  having  been  so  long  under  the  dominion  of  man, 
in  all  the  climates  of  the  earth.  In  some  of  them  the  combs, 
even  of  the  hens,  are  so  large,  that  they  fall  over  the  eye,  on  one 
side,  and  reach  below  the  chin ;  in  others,  we  find  a  crest,  or 
top-knot,  with  a  very  small  comb;  a  third  sort  have  all  the  fea- 
57  thers  reversed,  or  apparently  ruffled 

upward ;  a  fourth  is  entirely  desti- 
tute of  a  tail;  a  fifth,  the  Dorking- 
breed,  "  much-loved  "  of  poulterers, 
has  five  toes  on  each  foot  (Fig.  57, 
a,)  instead  of  four  (Fig.  57,  &;)  the 
comb  of  a  fifth  is  small  and  thin, 
while  that  of  a  sixth  is  broader  than  the  head.  The  Bantams 
were,  at  one  time,  considered  valuable  only  when  feathered  to  the 
points  of  the  toes ;  although  it  is  now  the  fashion  among  Bantam- 
fanciers,  to  have  the  legs  of  these  little 
favourites  quite  free  from  plumage.  One 
species  of  very  fine  Fowls,  which  are  called 
(we  know  not  with  what  propriety)  Spa- 
nish Fowls,  occasionally  change,  in  a  single 
moulting,  from  jet  black  to  speckled ;  and, 
as  we  remember,  in  two  cases  which  have 
fallen  under  our  own  observation,  to  perfect 
white.  The  Negro  Fowl  is  a  very  singular  variety;  for  not  only 
the  plumage,  but  the  comb,  wattles,  and  even  the  flesh,  are  entirely 
black.  The  legs  of  most  of  the  varieties  of  the  Cock  are  armed 
with  sharp  and  powerful  spurs  (Fig.  58,  foot  of  Jungle  Cock.) 

The  ancients  were  frequently  governed  in  their  actions  by 
auspices  derived  from  birds.  The  site  of  the  city  of  Rome  was 
decided  on  by  a  flight  of  Vultures.  In  after  times,  a  number 


216 


THE    AVIARY. 


of  chickens  were  cooped  up,  in  state,  which,  previously  to  "  the 
masters  of  the  world  "  embarking  in  any  great  undertaking,  were, 
very  solemnly  set  at  liberty,  and  a  handful  of  grain  placed  be- 
fore them  by  the  Pullarius,  or  keeper.  Their  eating  freely  was 
considered  as  an  omen  of  good  fortune;  but  if  they  refused  to 
feed,  no  hopes  of  success  were  entertained :  and  the  projected 
enterprise  was  thus  entered  into  with  ardour,  or  abandoned  in 
despair,  according  to  the  appetite  manifested  by  the  sacred  poultry. 
Superstitions,  equally  singular  and  ridiculous,  still  prevail  among 
our  own  peasantry.  It  is  accounted  unlucky,  in  many  parts  of 
England,  to  hear  a  Cuckoo  before  breakfast.  In  other  places,  a 
person  who  destroys  a  Marten's  nest,  or  kills  a  Robin,  is  supposed 
to  be  in  great  danger  of  breaking  a  limb  before  he  is  a  year  older: 
"  an  opinion  which  might  possibly  arise  from  the  confidence  these 
birds  (the  Martens)  put  in  us,  by  building  under  our  roofs,  so 
that  it  is  a  kind  of  violation  of  the  laws  of  hospitality  to  murder 
them."  The  sight  of  a  single  crow  has  often  induced  the  peasant 
to  turn  back,  and  postpone  the  business  on  which  he  was  bent, 
until  another  occasion.  Geese,  as  it  is  well  known,  generally  go 
from  the  poultry-house  to  the  pond  in  the  morning,  and  back 
again  in  the  evening,  in  a  regular  line; — the  proud  and  pompous 
gander  waddling,  with  ludicrous  gravity  at  their  head  :  if,  con- 
trary to  their  usual  custom,  they  go  homeward  two  and  two,  a 
funeral  in  the  neighbourhood  is  confidently  expected. 

Grouse  (Tetrao:) — The  beak  of  the  Wood  Grouse,  or  Cock  of 
the  Woods,  is  convex,  hooked,  and  extremely  powerful  (Fig.  59.) 
The  legs  are  strong  and  feathered, 
and  the  toes  are  furnished,  on  each 
side,  with  a  membrane,  the  edges  of 
which  are  strongly  toothed  (Fig.  60, 
foot  of  the  Wood  Grouse.)  The 
plumage  on  the  craw  is  of  a  lustrous 
green.  The  head,  lower  part  of  the 
breast,  and  belly,  are  black.  The 
wings  are  delicately  marked  with 
black  and  gray  irregular  streaks, 
on  a  rich  chocolate-coloured  ground. 
The  hen  is  much  smaller  than  the 
cock,  and  her  plumage  displays  va- 
rious shades  of  yellow  and  reddish  brown,  mingled,  in  some  parts, 
with  black.  The  feathers  of  the  belly,  scapulars,  and  tail,  are 
tipped  with  white. 


THE    AVIARY. 


217 


The  Wood  Grouse,  or  Cock  of  the  Woods  (Fig.  61,)  is  nearly 
as  large  as  a  good-sized  Turkey.  The  immense  forests  of  pine,  in 
some  of  the  northern  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, abound  with  Wood  Grouse ; 
and  thence,  during  the  winter, 
they  are  occasionally  brought  to 
England,  being  exceedingly  rare 
in  this  country.  They  feed,  prin- 
cipally, on  the  shoots  of  pine,  fir- 
cones, and  buds  of  the  heather. 
The  female  lays  from  eight  to 
fifteen  eggs ;  and  the  young  birds, 
as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  follow 
the  hen;  frequently,  like  those  of 
the  Partridge,  with  portions  of 
the  shell  adhering  to  the  plumage. 
The  Wood  Grouse  occasionally 
elevates  the  feathers  on  his  head;  this,  which  is  a  sign  of  pride  in 
him,  is  a  symbol,  which  may  always  be  relied  on,  of  fear  in  the 
Domestic  Cock. 

The  Black  Grouse  (Fig.  62)  is  about  one  foot  ten  inches  in  length, 
and  weighs  nearly  four  pounds;    the  general  colour  of  the  plumage 

is  a  rich  black ;  above  each  eye 
there  is  a  dash  of  scarlet,  and 
below  the  eye  a  spot  of  white; 
the  neck  and  rump  are  of  a 
glossy  blue;  the  under  tail- 
coverts  white;  the  lesser  wing- 
coverts  brown,  and  the  greater 
ones  white ;  the  wing  is  also 
barred  with  white :  the  feathers 
of  the  tail,  when  spread  out, 
form  a  very  singular  curve  on 
each  side.  The  toes  are  toothed 
on  the  edges;  the  eyes  are  a  deep  blue,  and  the  bill  black.  These 
birds  are  common  in  cold  countries;  they  frequent  the  northern 
parts  of  this  island,  and  feed  on  berries  during  the  winter,  and,  in 
summer,  on  corn.  They  do  not  pair,  but  assemble  111  flocks.  The 
hen  makes  a  careless  nest  on  the  ground,  and  lays  from  five  to 
eight  yellowish  eggs  freckled  with  brown. 

The  Red   Grouse,  or  Moor-cock,    is  about  fifteen    inches   in 
length :  the  general  colour  of  its  plumage  is  a  mixture  of  red  and 


218 


THE    AVIARY. 


black.  Red  Grouse  are  found  in  great  plenty  throughout  the 
mountainous  parts  of  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland.  They  pair  in 
spring,  and  the  female  lays  from  seven  to  ten  eggs  on  the  ground. 

The  White  Grouse,  or  Ptarmigan,  changes  the  colour  of  its 
plumage,  in  summer,  from  a  pure  white  to  a  pale  brown  colour; 
63  in  autumn,  when  it  begins  to  as- 

sume its  winter  livery  again,  it 
is  spotted  with  brown  on  various 
parts  of  the  body  (Fig.  63:)  these 
spots  disappear  by  degrees,  leav- 
ing the  plumage,  in  most  cases, 
perfectly  white,  except  that  the 
male  has  a  line  of  black  between 
the  bill  and  the  eyes.  The  White 
Grouse  is  about  the  same  size  as 
the  Moor-cock :  it  is  fond  of  cold  situations,  and  is  found  in  some 
of  the  Highland  hills,  in  the  Orkneys,  &c.  and  in  the  most  northern 
parts  of  Europe.  These  birds  feed  on  the  mountain  berries;  in 
winter  they  fly  in  flocks,  and  pair  in  spring.  The  hen  lays  eight 
or  ten  white  eggs,  spotted  with  brown,  on  the  ground. 

In  America,  the  Ruffed  Grouse  (Fig.  64)  is  usually  called  the 
Pheasant:  in  size  it  is  about  midway  between  that  bird  and  the 
Partridge ;  its  plumage  is  a  beautiful 
variety  of  brown  and  black ;  the  end 
of  the  tail  is  barred  with  black  on  an 
ash  colour;  the  bill  is  of  a  brownish 
horn  colour ;  the  legs  are  covered  with 
fine  white  feathers :  the  toes  are  pec- 
tinated, and  joined  at  their  bottoms  by 
membranes.  Mr.  John  Bartram  has 
given  the  following  curious  account  of 
the  Ruffed  Heath-cock: — "  This  is  a 
fine  bird  when  his  gaiety  is  displayed ; 
that  is,  when  he  spreads  his  tail  like  a 
Turkey-cock,  and  erects  a  circle  of 
feathers  round  his  neck  like  a  ruff,  walking  very  stately  with  an 
even  pace,  and  making  a  noise  something  like  a  Turkey;  at  which 
time  the  hunter  must  fire  immediately  at  him,  or  he  flies  away 
directly  two  or  three  hundred  yards,  before  he  settles  on  the 
ground.  There  is  something  very  remarkable  in  what  we  call 
their  thumping;  which  they  do  with  their  wings,  by  clapping  them 
against  their  sides,  as  the  hunters  say.  They  stand  upon  an  old 


THE    AVIARY. 


219 


fallen  tree,  that  has  lain  many  years  on  the  ground,  where  they 
begin  their  strokes  gradually,  at  about  two  seconds  of  time  distant 
from  one  another,  and  repeat  them  quicker  and  quicker,  until 
they  make  a  noise  like  thunder  at  a  distance;  which  continues, 
from  the  beginning,  about  a  minute,  then  ceaseth  for  about  six 
or  eight  minutes  before  it  begins  again.  The  sound  is  heard  near 
half  a  mile,  by  which  means  they  are  discovered  by  the  hunters." 
Partridge  (Perdix  ): — In  the  language  of  the  sportsman,  Part- 
ridges, exclusively,  are  termed  birds:  with  him,  a  Peacock  is  a 
Peacock,  and  Robins  are  Robins;  but  he  knows  of  no  birds  but 
Partridges.  They  constitute  a  material  part  of  the  game  of  this 
country;  and  are  too  well  known  to  require  a  description  of  their 
size  or  plumage.  Our  readers  may  not,  however,  be  aware,  that 
the  cock  bird  has  a  crescent,  of  a  deep  chestnut  colour,  on  his 
breast,  which  is  never  seen  on  that  of  the 
hen.  In  the  polar  regions  Partridges  be- 
come white  in  winter  ^  and  in  summer,  again 
assume  "  their  livery  of  brown:"  they  are 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  are 
nowhere  so  numerous  as  in  this  country. 
The  young  birds  are  strong  and  lively,  as 
soon  as  they  are  hatched;  and  have,  on 
several  occasions,  been  seen  quitting  the  nest 
with  some  of  the  shell,  from  which  they  have 
partly  emerged,  sticking  to  their  backs.  The  Partridge  (Fig.  65) 
lays  and  entirely  lives  on  the  ground,  except  during  its  brief  flights. 
The  eggs  may  be  hatched)  and  the  young  birds  reared,  under  a 
common  hen ;  but  it  is  indispensable  that  they  should  be  supplied 
with  ants'  larvae  when  young.  They  must  be  kept  confined  under 
a  net,  or  within  doors;  otherwise  they  will,  as  soon  as  they  become 
a  little  independent  of  their  foster-mother,  take  wing,  and,  quit- 
ting the  dwellings  of  man,  revel  in  corn-fields.  Partridges  mate 
in  spring,  and  the  hen  lays  from  fourteen  to  twenty  eggs. 

The  sagacity  and  affection  of  these  birds  for  their  young,  has 
been,  not  more  frequently  than  correctly,  described.      If  a  dog  ap- 
proach the  hen,  under  whose  wing  the  covey  are  concealed,  the 
cock  utters  a  peculiar  note  of  alarm,  and   throws  himself  in  the 
way  of  danger;    he  droops  his  wings,  appears  jaded,  distressed, 
and  scarcely  able  to  keep  above  a  pace  or  two  from  the  nose  of  the 
enemy,  running,   rather  than  flying,   before   him;    while  the  hen 
either  remains  close,  or  retires  with  her  brood  to  a  place  of  safety. 
Quails  are  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  Old  World.     The 
19 


220 


THE    AVIARY. 


Common  Quail  of  this  country  is  nearly  eight  inches  in  length; 
its  plumage  is  a  mixture  of  brown,  ash  colour,  yellow,  and  black. 
The  hen  makes  a  nest  like  the  Partridge,  and 
lays  seven  or  eight  eggs.  The  Chinese  Quails 
are  of  so  pugnacious  a  disposition,  that  they  are 
kept  to  fight  with  each  other  for  wagers.  They 
are  about  the  size  of  Larks  (Fig.  66.)  The 
ancients  also  kept  Quails  for  the  same  purpose. 
A  prefect  of  Egypt  was  punished  with  death 
by  Augustus,  for  bringing  to  table  one  of  these 
birds,  which  had  gained  a  number  of  victories. 

Bustard  (Otis) : — The  birds  of  this  genus  are  the  largest  of 
the  English  land-birds;  the  male  Bustard  usually  weighing  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds.  The  characteristics  of  the  Bustard 
are  so  singular,  that  it  has  been  placed  among  the  GRALL^:,  ranked 
with  the  Ostrich,  and  made  a  genus  of  the  order  GALLING.  It  fre- 
quents vast  plains,  has  a  long  neck  and  legs,  with  feet  formed  for 
running.  The  toes,  which  are  three  in  number,  are  all  directed 
forwards.  The  upper  mandible  is  slightly  arched,  and  the  bill 

rather  pointed.  (Figs.  67 
and  68,  foot  and  beak  of 
^^w  Hen-Bustard.)  The  head 
^^-^  and  neck  are  of  a  pale 
ashy  hue ;  the  breast  and 
belly  white;  the  back, 
wings,  and  tail,  are  marked  with  dashes  of  deep  brown  and 
black,  on  a  polished  rust-coloured  ground ;  a  tuft  of  long  feathers 
grows  from  each  side  of  the  lower  mandible.  The  female  is  not 
above  half  the  size  of  the  male;  her  colours  are  duller,  and 
her  head  is  of  an  orange  ground,  frequently  striped  with  black. 
The  male  bird  is  furnished  with  a  most  singular 
sack,  or  pouch,  situate  in  the  front  part  of  the 
neck;  the  entrance  to  which  is  under  the  tongue. 
It  is  capable  of  containing  two  quarts  of  water, 
and,  as  some  say,  considerably  more.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  bird  supplies  itself  from  this  reser- 
voir in  the  midst  of  those  open  plains,  in  which 
it  delights  to  roam;  and,  it  may  be,  affords  water 
to  the  hen,  when  sitting,  or  the  young  ones, 
before  they  are  able  to  reach  the  distant  ponds. 
(Fig.  69,  the  sack  dissected  out.)  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  a  hole 
which  she  makes  in  the  ground:  they  are  usually  two  in  number. 


THE     AVIARY. 


221 


Bustards  run  with  great  swiftness,  and  cannot  easily  be  induced 
to  take  wing:  they  feed  on  berries,  herbs,  and  worms.      Although 

once  common  on  the  exten- 
sive heaths  and  plains  of  this 
country,  these  birds  are  now 
nearly,  if  not  quite,  extermi- 
nated. The  Turkey,  and  other 
Gallinaceous  fowls,  with  which 
we  have  enriched  our  poultry- 
houses,  are  natives  of  other 
lands ;  all  are  inferior  in  size, 
and,  as  it  is  reported,  none  of 
them  are  superior  in  flavour  to 
the  Bustard;  yet,  no  attempt, 
that  we  can  learn, — and  it  is  a 
fact  much  to  be  lamented, — 
has  been  made  to  domesticate 
this,  which  is  an  indigenous 
bird  (Fig.  70,  male  Bustard.) 
Besides  the  Common  Bustard  of  this  country,  there  are  other 
species  found  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The 
Little  Bustard,  which  is  about  the  size  of  the  Pheasant,  has  been 
occasionally  met  with  in  England. 

COLUMBINE. 

In  the  Linnsean  system,  the  Doves  and  Pigeons  form  a  genus 
of  the  PASSERES:  Dr.  Latham,  in  his  arrangement,  has  made  a 
distinct  order  of  them.  In  form  and  plumage  these 
birds  are  elegant  and  beautiful:  their  legs  are  short, 
generally  red,  and,  in  some  of  the  varieties,  covered 
with  feathers;  the  toes  are  divided  to  the  origin; 
the  bill  is  weak,  and  slender  (Figs.  71  and  72,  beak 
and  foot  of  Turtle  Dove) ;  the  nostrils  are  placed 
in  a  fleshy  protuberance  at  the  base  of  the  bill. 
It  has  been  said  by  a  modern  author,  that  the  various  families 
which  constitute  this  order,  are  distinguished  by  shades  and  gra- 
dations so  minute  as  to  exceed  all  description.  This,  however, 
does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  the  case :  the  characteristics  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  varieties  being  very  striking.  The  Tumbler, 
the  Carrier,  the  Fantail,  and  the  Pouter,  not  only  differ  in  form, 
but  habits.  It  is  the  pride  of  the  Pouter  to  fill  his  enormous  crop 


222  THE    AVIARY. 

with  air,  and  to  stand  so  upright,  that  he  often  falls  backward. 
The  Fantail  delights  in  curving  its  neck  over  its  back,  and  spread- 
ing out  its  tail  like  a  Peacock.  The  Carrier  is  remarkable  for 
returning  home  from  great  distances;  and  the  Tumbler  owes  its 
name  to  the  circumstance  of  its  frequently  tumbling  backward, 
or  throwing  itself  completely  over,  when  on  the  wing.  The  legs 
of  the  Ruff,  the  Jacobine,  and  the  Pouter,  are  covered  with  fea- 
thers; those  of  the  Tumbler,  Carrier,  &c.  are  naked.  The  Horse- 
man, Dragoon,  and  Carrier,  have  enormous  wattles  on  their  beaks 
and  round  their  eyes ;  and  their  heads  differ  materially,  in  other 
respects,  from  those  of  the  Tumbler  and  most  other  Pigeons. 
Some  of  the  varieties  are  adorned  with  a  ruff,  or  frill,  of  inverted 
feathers,  down  the  neck ;  others  have  a  small  tuft,  or  crest,  on  the 
back  part  of  the  head;  while  the  greater  portion  are  entirely 
destitute  of  any  such  appendage.  They  vary  much  in  size;  and 
their  plumage  partakes  of  almost  every  shade  of  colour, — the 
result  of  domestication  and  frequent  intermixtures. 

The  Pigeon  forms  a  rude  nest  of  sticks,  straw,  roots,  &c. ;  she 
lays  two  white  eggs,  and  sets  fifteen  days  after  the  second  egg  is 
laid ;  the  cock  and  hen  both  incubate,  and  share  in  the  task  of 
feeding  the  young.  For  this  purpose,  the  crops  of  both  the  male 
and  female  are  endowed  with  the  singular  power  of  producing  a 
fluid,  which  coagulates  into  a  sort  of  curd:  with  this  the  young 
birds  are,  at  first,  entirely  fed ;  and  common  food  is  mixed  with 
it,  by  degrees,  until  the  nestlings  are  capable  of  subsisting  entirely 
on  the  latter. 

The  best  food  for  Pigeons  is  tares,  small  horse-beans,  peas, 
and  barley:  they  must  be  afforded  a  constant  supply  of  water; 
and  each  pair  ought  to  have  two  nest-holes  within  one  square,  or 
partition.  Small  pans  of  earthenware,  or  straw  baskets,  are  fre- 
quently placed  in  the  partitions,  for  the  more  valuable  kinds  of 
Pigeons:  in  these  the  birds  make  their  nests;  or,  if  they  be 
careless  in  this  particular,  which  is  often  the  case,  a  little  hay, 
or  soft  straw,  is  placed  in  the  pan  previously  to  their  laying,  in 
order  that  the  eggs  may  not  be  broken. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  our  readers  a  slight  sketch  of 
some  of  the  varieties. 

The  Turtle  Dove  is  about  twelve  inches  only  in  length;  the 
greater  part  of  its  plumage  is  of  an  ash  colour,  mixed  with  brown ; 
there  is  a  spot  of  black  feathers,  tipped  with  white,  on  each  side 
of  the  neck ;  the  breast  and  front  of  the  neck  are  of  a  fine  light 
purple,  dashed  with  red;  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  are  white; 


THE    AVIARY. 


223 


the  eyes  are  yellow,  and  encompassed  with  a  circle  of  crimson. 
Turtle  Doves  are  often  kept  in  cages  and  aviaries.  In  this  country 
they  have  only  one  brood  in  the  year. 
They  are  migratory  birds;  arriving 
here  late  in  the  spring,  and  depart- 
ing in  the  autumn.  They  build  their 
nests  in  the  most  retired  parts  of 
woods,  on  the  tops  of  high  trees; 
and  their  young  are  strong  enough 
to  accompany  them  when  they  de- 
part from  our  shores  to  pass  the 
winter  in  a  warmer  region  (Fig.  73,  the  Turtle  Dove.) 

The  Ring  Dove  is  much  larger  than  the  Turtle  Dove:  its 
plumage  is  principally  of  a  faint  blue,  or  ash  colour;  the  tail 
feathers  are  tipped  with  black ;  and  most  of  the  greater  quills  of 
the  wing  edged  with  white:  a  white  line  extends  to  some  dis- 
tance from  the  point  of  the  wing.  The  hinder  part  of  the  neck 
is  ornamented  with  glossy  plumage,  of  a  variable  hue,  in  the 
centre  of  which  there  is  a  line,  or  dash  of  white.  The  Ring 
Dove  is  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe:  its  nest  is  composed  of 
twigs,  and  it  is  generally  supposed  that  it  produces  two  broods  in 
the  year. 

The  Wild  Pigeon  (Fig.  74)  exhibits  a  variety  of  beautiful  hues 
in  its  plumage:  deep  blue,  brilliant  green,  purple,  gold,  ash,  pale 
red,  &c.  It  builds  in  the  holes  of  rocks,  among  woods,  the  hol- 
lows and  clefts  of  old  trees,  and 
similar  places,  and  commonly  has 
two  broods  in  a  year.  In  a  domes- 
tic state  these  birds  hatch  several 
times  in  the  course  of  the  season; 
and  their  increase  is  so  enormous, 
that  it  has  been  calculated,  the 
produce  of  a  single  pair,  at  the 
expiration  of  four  years,  may 
amount  to  nearly  fifteen  thousand. 
Their  enemies  are,  however,  so  numerous  and  powerful,  and  the 
young  ones  are  liable  to  so  great  a  number  of  casualties,  that 
the  produce  of  a  pair  of  these  birds,  for  many  years,  would  fall 
immensely  short  of  the  number  mentioned.  Common  Pigeons  are 
not  considered  of  sufficient  beauty  or  value  to  be  admitted  to  the 
Aviary;  but  great  numbers  of  them  are  reared  in  Dove-cotes, 
and  suffered  to  go  at  large  and  support  themselves. 
19* 


224 


THE    AVIARY. 


The  next  remove  from  the  Common  Pigeon  is  the  Runt; 
a  very  large  bird,  possessing  no  great  beauty  of  plumage.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  the  Runt;  one  of  which  is  remarkable,  on 
account  of  several  feathers  which  grow  from  the  outside  of  its 
feet;  and  another,  for  having  its  plumage  inverted,  or  turned 
contrary  to  the  usual  direction  :  there  is  a  peculiarity  somewhat 
similar  in  that  of  the  Frillback,  which  is  raised  or  curled  up  at 
the  ends,  so  that  each  feather  forms  a  singular  kind  of  hollow  in 
its  centre. 

All  Pigeons  have  a  peculiar  property,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  of  inflating  their  crops  with  air,  but  none  to  such  an 
enormous  size  as  the  Pouters  (Fig.  75,  the  English  Pouter,  or 
Pouting  Horseman.)  These  birds 
are  frequently  from  seventeen  to 
eighteen  inches  in  length;  their 
bodies  are  thin,  and  tapering  from 
the  shoulders  downward ;  their 
legs  are  strong,  straight,  and  co- 
vered with  soft,  white  feathers. 
The  front  of  the  crop,  the  under 
parts  of  the  body,  and  the  tips  of 
the  wings,  are  usually  white ;  there 
is,  also,  generally,  a  white  spot 
near  the  point  of  each  wing:  the 
remainder  of  the  plumage  is 
usually  of  one  uniform  colour, — 
yellow,  red,  blue  or  black,  except  round  the  white  spot  on  the  crop, 
where  the  feathers  are  of  a  brilliant  green,  or  purple.  These 
birds  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  rear,  on  account  of  the  careless- 
ness of  the  old  ones  :  for  this  reason,  their  eggs  are  generally 
hatched,  and  the  nestlings  brought  up  under  some  other  Pigeon. 
The  Uploper,  the  Dutch  Cropper,  the  Parisian,  and  other 
kinds  of  Pouters,  possess  nearly  the  same  peculiarities  as  the 
Pouting  Horseman. 

The  Carrier  is  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  birds  of  the 
Pigeon  tribe.  The  accounts  which  have  been  given  of  its  immense 
flights,  in  early  times,  might  be  deemed  fabulous,  if  they  were 
not  only  well  authenticated,  but  supported  by  facts  which  fre- 
quently occur  in  our  own  days.  The  Carrier  Pigeon  has  been 
made  use  of  for  ages,  to  carry  intelligence  from  one  place  to 
another.  Although  taken  to  a  great  distance,  as  soon  as  it  is  set 
at  liberty,  after  making  several  wide  circles  high  in  the  air,  it 


THE    AVIARY. 

returns  home  with  astonishing  velocity ;  and  may  thus  be  made 
die  bearer  of  news,  by  means  of  a  small  letter  fastened  to  its 
neck,  leg,  or  elsewhere,  from  the  persons  who  set  it  free,  to  those 
who  are  at  its  native  place.  It  will  perform  a  journey  of  forty  or 
fifty  miles  in  as  many  minutes;  and,  when  properly  trained,  will 
return  to  its  home,  with  nearly  equal  speed,  even  from  much  greater 
distances.  Numerous  instances  are  recorded  of  these  birds  having 
been  employed  to  convey  important  information  from  besieged 
towns.  Hirtius  and  Brutus  corresponded  with  each  other,  by 
means  of  Pigeons,  at  the  siege  of  Modena.  Taurosthenes  gave 
notice  to  his  father  at  ^Egina,  of  his  victory  at  the  Olympic  games, 
on  the  day  he  gained  it,  by  a  Pigeon  stained  with  purple.  A  late 
writer  states,  that  "  the  Turks  and  Persians  make  a  common  prac- 
tice of  breeding  this  sort  of  Pigeon  in  their  seraglios,  where  there 
is  one  whose  business  it  is  to  feed  and  train  these  birds  for  the 
use  afterwards  designed;  which  is  done  in  this  manner:  when  a 
young  one  flies  very  hard  at  home,  and  is  come  to  its  full  strength, 
they  carry  it  in  a  basket,  or  otherwise,  about  half  a  mile  from 
home,  and  then  turn  it  out;  after  this,  they  carry  it  a  mile;  then 
two,  four,  eight,  ten,  twenty,  &c. ;  till  at  length  it  will  return  from 
the  farthest  part  of  the  kingdom.  This  practice  is  of  admirable 
use;  for  every  bashaw  has  generally  a  basket  full  of  these  Pigeons 
sent  him  from  the  grand  seraglio;  and,  in  case  of  any  insurrec- 
tion, or  other  emergent  occasion,  he  braces  a  letter  under  the 
wings  of  a  Pigeon,  whereby  its  flight  is  not  in  the  least  incom- 
moded, and  immediately  turns  it  loose.  But  for  fear  of  its  being 
shot,  or  struck  by  a  Hawk,  they  generally  despatch  five  or  six; 
so  that,  by  this  means,  despatches  are  sent  in  a  more  safe  and 
speedy  manner  than  could  possibly  be  otherwise  contrived." 

A  similar  mode  to  that  above  described,  has  always  been  adopted 
to  train  the  Carriers;  if  they  be  not  accustomed,  by  degrees,  to 
find  their  way  home  from  a  distance  when  young,  and  gradually 
exercised  so  as  to  support  long  flights,  the  quality  for  which  they 
are  so  celebrated,  will  exist  but  in  a  very  trifling  degree:  other 
Pigeons  possess  it ;  but  they  can  never  be  trained  to  fly  with  such 
epeed  and  certainty,  nor  from  such  a  distance,  as  the  Carrier,  if 
we  except  the  Horseman  and  the  Dragoon,  which  are  Pigeons 
nearly  allied  to  it. 

The  Carrier  is  larger  than  the  Common  Pigeon:  the  plumage 
is  generally  either  black  or  dun  colour ;  its  neck  is  long,  tapering, 
and  well-shaped ;  its  breast  is  broad ;  the  head  and  beak  exceed  in 
length  those  of  most  other  Pigeons ;  and  its  appearance  altogether 


226 


THE    AVIARY. 


indicates  strength  and  activity.  The  wattles  on  the  beak  and 
round  the  eyes,  are  very  remarkable:  those  in  the  Horseman, 
which,  perhaps,  is  a  half-bred  Carrier,  are  rather  less  in  size; 
and  in  the  Dragoon,  which  is,  probably,  another  remove  from 

die  pure  stock,  they  are  not 
so  large  as  in  the  Horseman. 
Among  many  facts,  which 
may  be  depended  on,  relative 
to  the  extraordinary  qualities 
of  the  birds  of  the  Carrier  kind, 
we  select  the  following: — a 
gentleman  sent  a  Dragoon  by 
''  the  stage-coach,  from  London, 
to  a  friend  at  St.  Edmund's- 
bury,  with  a  note,  requesting 
that  the  Pigeon  might  be  set  at  liberty  two  days  after  its  arrival, 
precisely  at  nine  in  the  morning.  The  person  at  St.  EdmundVbury 
punctually  attended  to  this  request;  and  the  Pigeon  arrived  in 
London  at  half-past  eleven  o'clock  the  same  day;  thus  having 
performed  a  distance  of  seventy-two  miles  in  two  hours  and  a 
half.  (Fig.  76,  the  Carrier.) 

The  Tumbler  is  a  small  Pigeon,  with  a  thin  neck,  full  breast, 
round  head,  and  small  beak.  The  eyes  of  the  better  sort  of 
Tumblers  are  usually  of  a  fine  pearly  hue.  These  birds,  display  a 
variety  of  beautiful  colours.  The  Almond,  or  Ermine  Tumbler,  is 
particularly  conspicuous  for  the  richness  and  variety  of  tints  of  its 
plumage.  The  head,  tips  of  the  wings,  and  tail,  of  the  Bald- 
pated  Tumbler  (Fig.  77)  are  white.  There  is  another  variety 

called  Bearded  Tumblers :  the 
plumage  of  these  is  either  blue 
or  black,  except  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  throat  and  the 
cheeks,  which  are  ornamented 
with  a  dash  of  white.  The 
Tumblers  are  very  excellent 
birds  for  flying:  they  possess 
a  peculiarity,  to  which  we  have 
already  alluded,  of  throwing 
themselves  completely  over  when  in  the  air,  and  in  an  instant 
resuming  their  flight.  They  are  very  hardy  birds,  and  may  be 
classed  among  the  prettiest  of  the  Pigeon  tribe. 

The  Fantails  are  particularly  elegant  birds :  they  have  a  fre- 


THE    AVIARY. 


227 


quent,  peculiar,  tremulous  motion  in  the  neck;  from  this  circum- 
stance they  are  sometimes  called  Shakers.  The  tail  of  these  birds 
is  spread  out,  and  so  raised,  that  it  nearly  touches  the  head.  The 
Fantail  has  a  full  projecting  breast,  a  thin  neck,  and  a  very  small 

beak.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  these  birds  are  always 
white:  this  is  not  the  case,  as 
there  are  Fantails  of  various 
colours.  The  white  birds  are, 
however,  not  only  the  most 
common,  but,  deservedly,  die 
greatest  favourites.  There  is  a 
variety  of  the  Fantail,  called 
the  Narrow-tailed  Shakers ;  the 
necks  of  which  are  shorter  and 
thicker,  their  backs  longer,  and  their  tails,  as  the  name  imports, 
narrower  than  those  of  the  true  Fantails.  (Fig.  78,  the  Fantail.) 
Some  varieties  of  the  Pigeon  tribe  are  distinguished  by  a  crest 
on  their  heads;  others,  by  a  ruff  of  inverted  feathers  about  their 
necks ;  and  a  few,  by  a  tuft  on  the  breast ;  of  each  of  these  we 
shall  give  one  or  more  examples. 

The  heads  of  the  Helmet  and  the  Nun  are  ornamented  with 
a  fine  tuft  of  feathers,  which,  in  the  former,  are  supposed  to 
oear  some  slight  resemblance  to  a  helmet;  and  in  the  latter,  to 
a  veil :  hence,  it  is  supposed,  their  names  are  derived.  The  Nun 
is  a  very  pretty  little  Pigeon:  the  head,  tail,  and  ends  of  the  wings, 
are  usually  red,  yellow,  or  black; 
the  veil,  or  tuft,  and  the  rest  of 
the  plumage,  white :  in  this  par- 
ticular the  Helmet  resembles  the 
Nun.  The  Barb  Pigeon  is  ge- 
nerally dun,  or  black;  its  beak 
is  short,  thick,  and  the  base  of 
its  upper  mandible  covered  with 
a  small  wattle ;  there  is  also  a 
wattle,  or  circle  of  knotted  skin, 
of  a  strong  red  colour,  round  the 
eye.  Some  of  these  birds  have 

a  tuft,  slightly  resembling  that  of  the  Helmet  (Fig.  79.)  Among 
the  ruffed  Pigeons,  the  Jacobines  are  most  conspicuous:  they 
are  small  in  size,  and  vary  in  colours ;  but  those  of  a  fine  yellow 
are  supposed  to  be  of  the  greatest  value.  Whatever  may  be  the 


228 


THE    AVIARY. 


prevailing  hue  of  the  plumage,  the  head,  tail,  and  tips  of  the  wings 
are  generally  white;  the  legs  of  many  of  these  birds  are  covered 
with  feathers  to  the  toes.  The  Ruff  and  the  Capuchin  have  a 
hood,  or  frill,  similar  in  form  to,  but  not  so  large  and  handsome 
as  that  of  the  Jacobine. 

The  Pigeons  called  Owls,  and  the  Turbits  have  a  remarkable 
tuft  of  feathers  on  the  breast;  the  shape  of  which,  by  some 
writers,  has  been  compared  to  the  frill  of  a  shirt ;  and  by  others, 
to  a  full-blown  rose.  The  Owl  is  rather  less,  and  the  Turbit  is 
somewhat  larger  than  the  Jacobine. 

There  are  several  minor  varieties  of  Pigeons,  which  it  is  neither 
necessary,  nor  suitable  to  our  limits,  to  notice.  We  cannot,  how- 
ever, close  our  sketch  of  this  beautiful  order,  without  mentioning 

the  most  magnificent  bird 
which  it  comprises, — the  Co- 
lumba  coronata  of  Linnaeus, 
or  Great  Crowned  Pigeon. 
In  size  it  is  nearly  equal  to 
the  Turkey :  the  greater  part 
of  its  plumage  is  of  a  fine 
purple,  or  bluish  ash  colour ; 
the  middle  of  the  back,  and 
the  coverts  of  the  wings,  are 
of  a  dark  reddish  brick  co- 
lour; these  together,  says 
Edwards,  form  a  kind  of  sad- 
dle across  the  upper  part  of 
the  bird:  some  of  the  first 
row  of  covert-feathers,  above 
the  quills,  are  white,  with  red  tips;  the  remainder  of  the  row  is 
ash-coloured.  The  eye  is  of  a  beautiful  red,  and  placed  in  the 
centre  of  a  broad  space  of  black,  which  passes  backward  from  the 
upper  mandible,  and  ends  in  a  point  near  the  hinder  part  of  the 
head.  The  head  is  adorned  with  a  remarkably  handsome  crest  of 
a  pale  blue,  or  ash  colour,  similar  to  that  of  the  lightest  parts  of 
the  Common  Pigeon,  and  composed  of  a  number  of  fine  feathers, 
with  slender  shafts  and  fine  webs,  which  are  usually  elevated. 
The  bill  is  black;  and  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible  overhangs 
the  point  of  the  lower.  The  legs  and  feet  are  of  a  whitish  colour, 
spotted  with  red.  This  splendid  bird  is  a  native  of  the  East-India 
Islands  :  it  cooes,  and  has  the  peculiar  actions  and  manners  of 
other  Pigeons.  (Fig.  80,  the  Great  Crowned  Pigeon.) 


THE     AVIARY. 


•229 


PASSERINE. 

In  this  order   are   ranked  the   Warblers,  Thrushes,  Finches, 
Larks,  Fly-catchers,  and  most  of  the  smaller   kind  of  land   birds. 
81  Their  food  consists,  principally,  of  insects   and 

grain ;  some  species  living  on  the  former,  some 
on  the  latter,  and  some  on  both.  They  chiefly 
build  in  trees,  or  bushes ;  their  nests  are  re- 
markably neat;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Wrens,  and  other  small  species,  they  lay  a  mo- 
derate number  of  eggs.  Their  flight  is  quick 
and  fluttering ;  their  limbs  are  slender ;  and  their 
bills  are  formed  so  as  to  operate  in  the  manner  of  forceps. 
(Figs.  81  and  82,  beak  and  foot  of  Chaffinch). 

Starling  (Sturnus) : — The  Starling  is  about  the  size  of  a  Black- 
bird;   its  bill   is   straight  and  sharp-pointed:   when   young,   of  a 
83  84  yellowish  brown,  but  acquiring  a  deep  yellow 

colour  as  the  bird  grows  old;  its  tongue  is 
sharp  and  bifid.  (Figs.  83  and  84,  Starling's 
beak  and  tongue.)  The  Common  Stare,  or 
Starling  (Fig.  85)  has,  for  centuries  past,  been 
a  favourite  with  man,  on  account  of  its  docility,  and  the  curious 
beauty  of  its  plumage.  All  its  feathers  have  a  fine,  mixed,  me- 
tallic lustre;  at  the  end  of  each 
is  a  pale  yellow  spot:  the  general 
colour  is  a  glossy  black,  embellished 
with  green,  blue,  copper,  and  purple 
tints.  A  gentleman  has,  very  lately, 
shown  us  a  young  bird  of  this  spe- 
cies, which  is  perfectly  white.  The 
female  builds  in  hollow  trees,  old 
walls,  rocks  or  cliffs  near  the  sea- 
shore, and,  occasionally,  under  the 
eaves  of  houses:  she  lays  four  or 
five  eggs,  of  a  light  green  ash  colour.  These  birds  are  found  in 
almost  every  climate:  they  feed,  in  a  state  of  nature,  on  snails, 
worms,  caterpillars,  and  various  sorts  of  grain,  fruit,  and  die  eggs 
of  other  birds.  They  are  seen  in  large  flocks,  during  winter; 
and  associate  with  other  birds,  as  well  as  those  of  their  own 
species.  They  have  a  peculiar  mode  of  flight,  which  Buffon  com- 
pares to  a  sort  of  vortex,  in  which  the  whole  body  performs  a 


230  THE     AVIARY. 

circular  revolution,  and,  at  the  same  time,  makes  a  progressive 
advance. 

This  bird  may,  without  difficulty,  be  taught  to  whistle  tunes, 
and  utter  words,  or  even  short  phrases:  it  is  one  of  the  very  few, 
among  the  feathered  tribes,  the  native  songs  of  which  are,  to  the 
ear  of  taste,  improved  by  tuition.  It  has  acquired  poetical  honours 
by  the  notice  of  Shakspeare,  who,  after  that  angry  interview  be- 
tween Henry  the  fourth  and  Hotspur, — during  which,  the  king 
commands  him  never,  in  his  royal  hearing,  to  speak  of  Mortimer 
again, — makes  the  high-spirited  Percy  exclaim, — 

I'll  find  him  while  he  lies  asleep, 
And  in  his  ear  I'll  holla,  '  Mortimer !  '— 
Nay,  I  will  have  a  Starling  taught  to  speak 
Nothing  but  Mortimer:  and  give  it  him 
To  keep  his  anger  still  in  motion! 

In  addition  to  its  ability  for  acquiring  tunes,  and  imitating  the 
language  of  man,  the  Starling  may  be  taught  a  variety  of  droll 
antics :  we  have  seen  one  that  would  fetch  and  carry ;  perch  on  its 
owner's  shoulder,  at  the  word  of  command ;  lie  on  its  side,  and 
close  its  eyes  as  if  it  were  dead,  &c. — It  was  rapidly  advancing  in 
the  mystery  of  throwing  itself  heels  over  head,  and  some  other 
equally  elegant  accomplishments,  when,  one  morning,  some  dire 
grimalkin  caught  and  devoured  it.  In  a  tame  state,  the  Starling 
may  be  fed  on  worms,  berries,  raw  meat,  soaked  bread,  scalded 
meal,  &c. 

The  Water  Ouzel  (Fig.   86,)   which,  by  some  naturalists  is 
removed  from  this  genus  to  a  place  among  the  WATER  BIRDS,  is 
86  generally  found  near  rapid  streams; 

particularly  where  the  flow  of  the 
current  is  broken  by  rocky  frag- 
ments. Its  plumage  is  impervious 
to  water;  and  it  has  the  singular 
faculty  of  walking  on  the  bed  of  a 

rv££x~  ^S^ySjBfflpwtf  river,  beneath  the  water,  in  search 
of  its  prey.  Some  authors  say,  that 
it  is  as  much  at  its  ease  in  this  situation  as  on  the  dry  land.  The 
accuracy  of  these  statements  is,  however,  doubted:  the  fact  of 
its  having  been  frequently  seen  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  is  well 
authenticated;  but  it  would  appear,  according  to  the  accounts  of 
Montague  and  others,  that  it  tumbles  about,  and  uses  great 
exertions,  both  with  its  legs  and  wings,  during  its  subaqueous 
forays  upon  the  little  fish  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  worthy  of 


THE    AVIARY. 


231 


remark,  that  the  toes  of  these  birds  are  not  webbed,   but,  on  the 
contrary,  most  distinctly  parted. 

Thrush  (Turdus:) — The  rich-toned  Throstle,  called,  by  one 
of  our  poets,  the  mellow  Mavis;  the  Fieldfare;  and  that  bril- 
liant songster,  the  Blackbird, — are  the  most  common  birds  of  the 
Thrush  genus  in  this  country;  to  which,  also, 
belong  the  Ring-Ouzel,  and  the  Redwing;  the 
Brown  Indian  Thrush,  the  Golden-crowned 
Thrush,  and  several  other  species.  All  the  birds 
of  the  Thrush  kind  have  a  little  notch  on  each  side  at  the  end  of 
the  bill,  which  is  rather  straight,  and  slightly  bent  towards  the  tip; 
the  nostrils  are  oval  and  naked.  (Fig.  87,  beak  of  Blackbird.) 

The  size,  shape,  and  plumage  of  the  Thrush  and  the  Blackbird, 
or  Black  Ouzel,  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  particular 
description.  The  Throstle  begins  his  song  early  in  the  spring,  and 
continues  it  during  part  of  the  summer.  The  female  lays  five  or 
six  eggs  of  a  light  blue  colour,  marked  with  dusky  spots.  The 
nest  of  the  Throstle  is  generally  built  in  bushes,  and  made  of  dry 
grass,  clay,  and  rotten  wood.  These  birds  feed  on  insects,  and  the 
berries  of  holly,  misletoe,  &c.  When  kept  in  cages,  their  usual 
food,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Black  Ouzel,  is  raw  or  parboiled  meat, 
sopped  bread,  stale  bun,  scalded  fig-dust,  or  bruised  hemp-seed 
and  chopped  egg  mixed  with  crumbs  of  bread. 

The  Blackbird  (Fig.  88)  sings  as  soon  as  the  Thrush,  and  con- 
tinues to  enliven  the  woods  with  his  full,  melodious  notes  for  four 

or  five  months.  The  nest  of 
the  Blackbird  is  built  in  a 
low  bush,  generally  a  holly; 
the  female  lays  four  or  five 
eggs,  regularly  marked  with 
spots  of  a  dusky  hue  on  a 
bluish  ground.  Blackbirds 
cannot  be  kept  in  Aviaries,  on 
account  of  their  quarrelsome 
dispositions.  They  are  ex- 
cellent song-birds  for  the  cage;  and,  if  brought  up  from  the  nest, 
may  be  taught  to  whistle  tunes  very  correctly:  the  practice,  how- 
ever, in  our  opinion,  is  a  bad  one;  we  look  upon  it  as  a  great 
waste  of  time,  tending  to  no  good  purpose:  the  native  notes  of 
the  Blackbird  are  excellent;  and  it  seems  a  pity  "to  spoil  a  good 
song-bird,  by  making  him  a  middling  musician."  Netted  Black- 
birds are,  generally,  worthless  in  a  cage:  those  only  which  are 
20 


232 


THE     AVIARY 


reared  from  the  nest,  and  have  never  known  the  sweets  of  liberty, 
become  good  songsters  in  a  state  of  captivity.  They  are  so 
addicted  to  mocking  whatever  sounds  they  hear,  that  a  Black- 
bird, brought  up  in  the  metropolis,  has  often  been  known,  not  only 
to  imitate  the  notes  of  the  birds  near  him,  but  even  the  cries  of 
those  persons  who  carry  various  sorts  of  wares  for  sale  about  the 
streets.  To  obtain  a  good  Blackbird,  rich  in  his  native  note,  we 
must  go  into  some  retired  village;  and  there  we  may  probably 
discover  a  fine  Black  Ouzel,  in  a  plain  wicker  cage,  beneath  the 
eaves  of  a  labourer's  cot,  chanting  the  notes  which  he  has  heard 
his  free  sire  singing  from  the  holly-tree  top  in  the  adjacent  wood. 
Grosbeak  (Loxia): — This  genus  is  composed  of  solitary  birds 
without  much  vocal  powers,  and  which,  excepting  the  Bulfinch, 
are  but  little  known  in  this  countrv.  The 
principal  characteristic  of  the  genus  is  a  thick, 
short,  convex  bill  (Fig.  89,  bill  of  the  Haw- 
finch): that  of  the  Crossbill  (Fig.  90)  is  very 
singular:  the  upper  and  lower  mandible  cross 
each  other  in  opposite  directions,  and  "  seem 
to  have  been  formed  for  detaching  the  scales 
of  the  fir-cones^  and  obtaining  the  seeds 
lodged  beneath  them^  which  are  the  principal 
food  of  this  bird.  It  raises  each  scale  with 
its  lower  mandible,  and  breaks  it  with  the  upper." 

The  Crossbill  (Fig.  91)  is  about  the  size  of  a  Lark;  its  general 

colour  is  reddish  ;  it  occasionally  visits 

^^^^  this  country,  but  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  colder  climates,  where  it  always 
breeds.  It  is  said  to  fix  its  nest  to 
a  branch  by  the  gummy  matter  which 
exudes  from  the  pine-tree,  and  to 
plaster  its  little  abode  with  the  same 
substance,  so  as  effectually  to  exclude 
the  melted  snow,  or  rain,  from  the 
interior  of  its  comfortable  little  tenement. 

The  plumage  of  the  Hawfinch  varies  so  considerably,  that  we 
rarely  meet  with  three  or  four  birds  alike.  In  that  of  the  specimen 
now  before  us,  the  top  of  the  head,  the  cheeks,  back,  and  lesser 
wing-coverts  are  reddish;  the  back  part  of  the  neck  is  ashy  gray; 
the  throat,  chin,  and  the  space  between  the  base  of  the  bill  and 
eye,  are  black;  the  greater  wing-coverts  are  white;  the  prime 
quills  have  a  spot  of  white  on  their  under  webs;  the  belly  and 


THE     AVIARY.  233 

breast  are  of  a  light  brown;  the  tail  is  black,  with  the  exception 
of  the  outer  feathers,  which  are  tipped  with  white.  The  Hawfinch 
does  not  possess  "  the  witchery  of  song."  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  milder  parts  of  Europe,  and  only  visits  this  country. 

The  Indian  Grosbeak  is  a  very  docile  bird,  and  easily  do- 
mesticated: it  may  be  taught  to  fetch  and  carry;  and  it  is  an 
authenticated  fact,  that  a  well-trained  bird  will,  upon  a  signal 
being  given  to  him,  fly  down  after  a  ring,  which  has,  a  moment 
or  two  before,  been  dropped  into  a  well,  catch  it  before  it  reaches 
the  water,  and  bring  it  up  with  apparent  exultation  to  its  master. 
The  Grosbeaks  are  also  instructed  to  pluck  off,  and  carry  away 
in  triumph,  at  command,  the  pieces  of  gold  which  the  young 
Hindoo  women,  at  Benares,  and  other  places,  wear  as  ornaments, 
slightly  fixed  between  their  eyebrows.  The  Indian  Grosbeak 
makes  its  nest  of  grass,  which  it  weaves  like  cloth,  shaped  like  a 
bottle,  and  with  its  entrance  downwards  :  it  is  suspended  from 
the  branches  of  the  Palmyra,  or  some  other  high  tree,  and  rocks 
to  and  fro  with  the  wind.  It  consists  of  two  or  three  chambers; 
and  it  is  the  popular  belief,  that  the  bird  illumines  its  little  tene- 
ment with  fire-flies,  which  are  often  found  stuck,  by  means  of  a 
little  soft  clay,  on  the  inside  of  the  nest;  they  are,  however,  doubt- 
less, so  placed  only  for  the  purpose  of  food. 

Bulfinches  are  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  are  celebrated 
for  their  faculty  of  acquiring  tunes:  it  is  even  said,  that  instances 
have  been  known  of  two  Bulfinches  having  been  taught  to  whistle 
in  parts.  The  note  of  the  Bulfinch,  in  a  wild  state,  is  described 
as  being  simple,  and  by  no  means  admirable ;  but  there  is  a  deep 
and  tender  beauty  in  it,  for  which  its  acquired  airs  and  graces, 
when  caged  and  instructed,  can  never  compensate.  It  is  some- 
times taught  to  utter  words;  and  when  capable  of  so  doing,  is 
much  admired,  and  highly  appreciated.  These  birds  build  in 
thickets ;  their  nests  are  formed  principally  of  moss ;  the  eggs  have 
a  dull  blue  tint,  and  dark  spots  at  the  larger  end.  In  the  state  of 
confinement  they  are  fed  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  Linnets. 

Bunting  (Emberiza): — The  birds  of  this  genus  very  much 
resemble  the  Grosbeaks:  the  principal  difference  consists  in  the 
formation  of  the  bill;  the  Bunting  having  both  the 
mandibles  moveabhe,  and  the  sides  bending  inwards: 
the  junction  of  the  two  mandibles  at  the  base,  is 
formed  by  an  angular  projection  of  the  edge  of  the 
lower  fitting  into  a  corresponding  recess  in  the  upper  (Fig.  92, 
head  of  Bunting);  the  upper  mandible  is  also  furnished  with  a 


234 


THE     AVIARY. 


hard  knob,  of  great  utility  to  the  bird  in  breaking,  or  bursting, 
such  hard  seeds  and  kernels  as  are  adapted  for  its  food  (Fig.  93, 
the  skull  of  the  Bunting;  a,  the  knob.)  The  outer 
toe  is  joined,  as  far  as  the  first  joint,  to  the  middle 
one.  The  Hunting  is  very  common  in  this  country ; 
its  note  is  harsh,  an  1  frc(|iicntly  repeated.  The 
female  builds  in  thick  grass,  an  1  lays  five  or  six  eggs:  while  she 
broods,  the  male  brings  her  food,  and  entertains  her  with  his 
song,  which,  doubtless,  to  her  is  most 
musical  and  cheering.  Buntings  are 
seen  in  large  flocks  during  a  great 
part  of  the  winter;  quantities  of  them 
are  taken  in  nets,  and  on  account  of 
their  similarity  in  size  and  plumage, 
sold  for  the  table  as  larks  (Fig.  94, 
the  Bunting.) — The  Yellowhammer, 
and  the  Snowflake,  belong  to  this 
genus  :  the  latter,  though  rare  in  the  southern  parts  of  England, 
is  often  seen  in  Yorkshire,  and  abounds  in  the  Scottish  Highlands. 
It  does  not  perch,  but  runs  along  the  ground  like  the  Lark; 
which  bird  it  also  resembles  in  the  length  of  its  hinder  claw. 
From  these  circumstances  it  is,  by  some  authors,  placed  in  the 
same  genus  as  the  Larks ;  but  the  formation  of  its  bill  has  induced 
other  writers  to  rank  it  among  the  Buntings.  It  changes  the 
colour  of  its  dress  with  the  season  :  the  head,  neck,  and  under 
parts  of  the  body,  which,  in  winter,  are  of  a  beautiful  pure  white, 
in  the  summer  are  decorated  with  transverse,  wavy  dashes,  of  a 
brownish  red.  It  builds  its  nest  in  clefts  of  rocks,  in  high  northern 
latitudes;  and  lines  its  little  habitation  with  fine  feathers,  and  the 
softest  fur  of  those  animals  which  abide  in  the  same  regions. 

The  delicious  Ortolan,  which  is  so  prized  in  Italy,  and  some 
parts  of  France,  by  the  epicure,  ranks  in  this  genus  of  birds.  It 
builds,  like  the  Lark,  among  grass  tufts,  or  at  the  foot  of  some 
little  shrub;  and,  it  is  said,  warbles  very  sweetly  during  the  night. 
It  is  taken  alive,  and  fattened,  in  a  dark  place,  for  the  table,  on 
millet. 

The  nest  of  the  Black-headed  Bunting,  or  Reed-Sparrow, 
merits  a  brief  description  ere  we  close  our  slight  sketch  of  the 
birds  of  this  genus:  it  may  be  compared  to  a  little  hammock; 
being  fixed  with  singular  art,  about  three  feet  above  the  water, 
in  a  marsh,  or  fen,  to  four  reed-stalks  :  it  is  made  of  dry  grass, 
and  exquisitely  lined  with  the  softest  portions  of  the  reed.  The 


THE  AVIARY. 


235 


Black-headed  Bunting  remains  in  this  country  the  whole  year: 
it  is  rather  less  than  the  Yellow  Bunting ;  and  sometimes  kept  as 
a  song-bird;  but  it  rarely  warbles  its  soft  and  pleasant  notes  in 
much  perfection  while  in  a  state  of  captivity. 

Finch  (Fringilla)  : — The  beak,  in  this  genus,  is  cone-shaped, 
remarkably  sharp  at  the  point  and  thick  at  the  base,  and  bearing 

a  considerable  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  Grosbeak. 
The  Finches  frequently  as- 
semble in  large  flocks ;  they 
feed  on  insects  and  their 
eggs,  as  well  as  seeds  and 
grain.  (Figs.  95, 96, 97, 98, 
99,  and  100,  beaks  of  Gold- 
finch; Sparrow;  Mountain 
Sparrow;  Mountain  Finch;  Canary;  Red-poll  Linnet;  and  (a) 
tongue  of  Canary  Finch.) 

This  genus  comprehends  several  of  those  little  birds  which  are 
equally  admired  for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage  and  the  liveliness 
of  their  song.  To  enter  into  any  description  of  the  colours  of  the 
Goldfinch,  the  Linnet,  or  the  Canary,  would  be  superfluous;  nor 
is  it  even  necessary  to  dwell  on  the  mode  of  treatment  most  con- 
genial to  their  habits  when  kept  as  song-birds;  for  who  does  not 
know  that  these  gay  little  warblers  delight  in  being  placed,  during 
the  merry  spring-time  of  the  year,  where  the  sun-beam  may  gild 
their  plumage  with  a  richer  glow 7 — in  the  sultry  season,  abroad, 
but  in  the  shade! — and,  while  their  feathers  are  falling,  and  through- 
out the  winter,  in  "  some  choice  location,"  which  is  at  once  shel- 
tered, but  not  solitary'? — or,  that  they  live  on  seeds,  and  require 
to  be  regularly  provided  with  food  and  water,  for  which,  in  return, 
the  little  captives  make  their  little 
mansions  merry  with  their  melody'? 
The  Goldfinch  (Fig.  101,)  when  kept 
i  in  a  cage,  loses,  in  moulting,  the 
freshness  and  beauty  of  its  plumage 
those  which  are  purchased  in  au- 
tumn, possess  the  livery  they  wore 
•  in  the  woods ;  and  it  is  never  again 
equalled,  while  the  birds  remain  in  a  state  of  captivity.  The 
proper  time  for  purchasing  these  birds  is  when  the  young  ones 
flock,  at  the  latter  end  of  the  summer:  those  which  are  taken  in 
spring,  frequently  pine,  and  rarely  prove  good  songsters  in  the 
20* 


236 


THE  AVIARY. 


cage.  The  Goldfinch  builds  a  very  beautiful  nest  of  moss,  and 
other  soft  materials,  and  lays  five  or  six  eggs,  which  are  white, 
and  marked  at  the  end  with  purple  spots. 

The  Linnet  (Fig.  102)  has  a  great  number  of  admirers,  and, 
when  rich  in  song,  is  deemed  valuable.  Young  birds  are  often,  as 
the  curious  express  it,  brought  up 
under  an  old  Linnet  of  reputa- 
tion as  a  songster;  and  from 
being  kept  in  the  same  room  long 
enough  to  acquire  the  variety  of 
notes  and  execution  of  its  master, 
the  little  pupils  are  reckoned 
worth  two  or  three  guineas  each; 
or  even  more,  if  they  exhibit  any 
unusual  powers  of  voice.  The 
nest  of  the  Linnet  is  usually  built  in  a  white-thorn,  or  furze- 
bush:  it  is  composed  of  bents,  moss,  &c.  and  lined  with  fine  down, 
and  sometimes  horse-hair;  the  hen  lays  four  or  five  whitish  eggs. 

The  Canary  is  not  a  native  of  this  country:  the  species  is 
found  in  a  wild  state  in  the  Canary  Islands ;  whence  it  has  been 
introduced  to  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  reared  in  cages  and  Aviaries 
with  great  success.  There  is  a  Canary-club  in  the  metropolis,  the 
members  of  which  meet  once  a  year  to  exhibit  their  birds;  and 
premiums  are  awarded  to  the  owners  of  such  as  are  most  perfect 
in  shape  and  plumage  (they  care  but  little  for  song,)  according  to 
a  certain  standard  of  beauty,  which  Canary-fanciers  have  set  up 
and  very  well  understand,  but  which  we  should  find  a  difficulty  in 
describing.  Canaries  will  learn  the  notes  of  other  song-birds,  if 
they  be  placed  within  hearing  of  each  other;  they  may  also  be 
taught  to  whistle  tunes  with  tolerable  correctness.  In  a  work, 
published  above  a  hundred  years  ago,  by  Bernard  Lintot,  on 
Canary-birds,  more  than  twenty  different  sorts  are  enumerated. 
The  author  states,  that  "  there  were  some  persons,  even  of  note, 
who  drove  an  open  trade  with  them  the  first  year  after  they  came 
to  this  city."  Although  the  Canary  is  a  bird  in  more  esteem  than 
the  Goldfinch  or  Linnet,  we  plead  guilty  of  being  so  gothic  as  to 
prefer  either  of  these  natives  of  England  to  the  little  foreigner, 
who  in  our  opinion,  is  too  noisy  to  be  agreeable:  indeed,  the 
ambition  of  the  Canary  is  not  confined  to  singing  down  all  other 
birds;  for  it  frequently  tries  its  utmost  to  drown,  in  the  loudness 
of  its  song,  the  notes  of  instruments,  and  the  voices  of  those  who 
talk  or  sing  within  its  hearing. 


THE    AVIARY.  237 

Canaries  are  frequently  bred  in  cages  and  Aviaries,  and  some- 
times united  with  Goldfinches  or  Linnets.  Ten  or  fifteen  couple 
may  be  kept  together  in  a  large  room,  which  should  be  fitted  up 
with  nest-boxes,  apart  from  each  other,  or  placed  in  pairs  at  the 
different  corners.  When  kept  in  a  cage,  they  should  have  two 
boxes  or  pans  to  build  in;  little  bags,  containing  materials  for 
the  nest,  must  be  hang  up  inside  the  cage:  these  bags  are  to  be 
bought  at  the  bird-shops;  and  also  little  ivory  balls,  which  are 
used  to  replace  the  eggs  that  are  taken  out  as  they  are  laid,  for 
safety  sake,  until  the  hen  is  ready  to  sit.  She  usually  lays  four 
or  five  eggs,  and  sits  fourteen  days.  She  will  sometimes  hatch  a 
second  brood  before  the  first  are  ready  to  quit  their  nest;  in  this 
case,  the  cock-bird  attends  the  first  brood  until  they  are  able  to 
feed  themselves.  Canaries  are  usually  fed  upon  canary-seed, 
without  any  preparation;  but  when  they  have  young  ones,  it  is 
advisable  to  give  them  soft  meat,  such  as  a  mixture  of  yolk  of  egg 
boiled  hard  and  grated,  a  few  crumbs  of  fine  bread,  and  a  little 
scalded  rape-seed  bruised  among  the  egg  and  bread.  Food  of  a 
similar  kind  should  also  be  given  to  the  young  birds,  after  they 
have  left  their  nest,  until  their  first  moulting;  they  are  then  to 
be  brought  to  hard  seed  by  degrees.  They  should,  occasionally, 
be  afforded  a  little  groundsel,  or  chickweed,  and  their  cages,  as 
well  as  those  of  all  other  birds,  kept  particularly  clean. 

The  House-Sparrow  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the  Linnet  and 
Canary.  Buffon,  very  improperly,  in  our  opinion,  reproaches 
this  bird  for  its  familiarity:  the  Robin  is  esteemed  and  protected 
for  visiting  the  dwellings  of  man,  at  a  season  when  the  woods  and 
meads  would  afford  it  but  a  scanty  supply  of  food ;  but  the  prim- 
rose has  scarcely  appeared  on  the  hedge-row,  when  the  Robin 
quits  us  for  his  old  haunts:  while  the  House-Sparrow  abides  with 
us  throughout  the  year;  it  constantly  affects  society,  and  is  never 
found  in  the  woods:  the  abode  of  man  is  its  home;  it  rears  it? 
nestlings  under  his  roof;  and  enlivens  the  heart  of  the  most  busy 
and  populous  towns  with  its  presence.  Its  utility,  as  a  destroyer 
of  insects,  compensates  for  the  mischief  which  it  does:  and  it 
deserves  to  be  protected  rather  than  proscribed. 

Fly-catcher  (Muscicapa): — Although  the  species  of  this  genus 
are  exceedingly  numerous,  only  two  are  found  in  this  country. 
The  useful  instincts  and  propensities  of  this  active  little  race,  says 
a  modern  author,  are  chiefly  confined  to  countries  under  the  more 
immediate  influence  of  the  sun,  where  they  are  of  infinite  use  in 
destroying  the  noxious  insects  engendered  by  heat  and  moisture, 


238 


THE  AVIARY. 


which  are  continually  upon  the  wing.  Buftbn  has  also  remarked, 
that  the  useful  destination  of  the  Fly-catchers  will  occur  to  the 
most  superficial  observer:  the  insect  tribes  eiude  the  interference 
of  man ;  and,  though  despicable  as  individuals,  they  often  become 
formidable  by  their  numbers.  Instances  are  recorded  of  their  mul- 
tiplying to  such  an  amazing  degree,  as  to  darken  the  air; — of  their 
devouring  the  entire  vegetable  productions; — and  of  their  carrying 
in  their  train,  the  accumulated  ills  of  famine  and  pestilence.  Happily 
for  mankind,  such  calamities  are  rare;  and  Nature  has  wisely 
provided  the  proper  remedies.  Most  birds  search  for  the  eggs  of 
ina  insects;  many  feed  on  their  grovelling  larvae ;  some 

subsist  on  their  crustaceous  chrysalides ;  and  the 
Fly-catchers  seize  them  after  they  escape  from 
prison,  exulting  on  their  wings.  In  the  language 
of  Pennant,  the  characters  of  this  genus  are,  bill  flatted  at  the 
base,  almost  triangular,  notched  at  the  end  of  the  upper  man- 
dible, and  beset  with  bristles  at  its  base  (Fig.  103.) 

The  Pied  Fly-catcher  (Fig.  104) 
is  about  five  inches  in  length ;  the 
bill,  legs,  top  of  the  head,  back, 
and  tail,  except  the  outer  feathers, 
are  black;  the  forehead,  and  all 
the  under  parts  of  the  body,  the 
outer  feathers  of  the  tail,  parts 
of  the  greater  coverts  and  se- 
condary quills,  are  white;  the 
wing-coverts  dusky.  The  female  has  no  white  on  the  forehead; 
her  plumage  is  brown,  where  that  of  the  cock  is  black. 

Lark  (Alauda:) — The  characters  of  this  genus  are  thus  des- 
cribed:— The  bill  straight  and  slender,  pointed,  and  rather  bent 
,105  106    //  towards  the  extremity;    bifid 

tongue;  the  nostrils  covered 
with  feathers  and  bristles; 
toes  divided  to  their  origin ; 
the  claw  of  the  hinder  one  nearly  straight,  and  considerably  the 
longest  (Fig.  105  and  106,  beak  and  foot  of  Titlark.) 

The  time  has  been,  when  it  was  one  of  our  enjoyments  to  be 
upon  the  hills,  before  the  sun  was  visible ;  to  watch  the  Lark, 
awakened  by  the  first  glance  of  the  "  gray-eyed  dawn,"  rise  into 
the  calm,  solitary  air,  and  there  carol  his  loud  hymn ;  to  listen  to 
his  notes  long  after  the  soaring  bird  was  too  high  to  be  seen:  and, 
while  he  continued  on  the  wing,  to  witness  the  bee,  the  flower 


THE    AVIARY. 


239 


and  the  butterfly,  shake  off  the  influence  of  night,  and  seem  to 
rejoice  in  the  first  sun-beams  of  the  morning.  Health  scattered 
her  roses  in  our  early  path;  the  birds,  the  wild  thyme,  and  the 
heath-flower,  perfumed  the  air  around  us  with  their  fresh  and 
grateful  odours:  and  the  melody  of  Nature,  trilled  by  the  bird  of 
the  morning,  where  he  fluttered  amid  the  dawning  clouds  at  sun- 
rise, were  quite  as  productive  of  holy  feelings,  in  our  bosoms,  as 
the  scientific  works  of  a  great  composer,  chanted  by  a  vocalist  of 
eminence  at  a  midnight  oratorio. 

The  species  most  commonly  known  of  this  genus,  are  the 
Skylark,  the  Woodlark,  and  the  Titlark:  the  homely  plumage 

107  as**.          °^  eac^    °^  tnese   is>   d'>"btless, 

JE^  familiar  to  the  reader.  The  Sky- 
lark (Fig.  107)  is  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  our  British  song-birds, 
and  as  great  a  favourite  with 
the  poets  as  the  transcendent 
Nightingale.  Rising  almost  per- 
pendicularly from  his  lowly  nest, 
he  ascends,  by  a  succession  of 
springs  to  an  immense  height,  singing  all  the  while  to  cheer  his 
brooding  mate,  whom  he  continually  keeps  in  view;  and,  should 
she  attract  him,  he  drops,  like  a  stone,  from  his  elevation,  as  it 
were,  to  attend  her  bidding;  on  other  occasions,  his  descent  is 
made  in  an  oblique  direction. 

The  Larks  usually  pass  their  time  on  the  wing,  or  on  the 
ground;  the  peculiar  construction  of  their  hinder  claws  preventing 
them  from  perching,  like  many  other  birds  of  a  similar  size,  on 
twigs:  those  even  which  alight  on  trees,  venture  only  on  the 
larger  branches,  which,  from  their  breadth,  afford  nearly  as  secure 
a  footing  as  the  surface  of  the  earth.  On  the  ground,  also,  the 
Larks  build  their  nests;  the  principal  material  of  which  is  dried 
grass.  The  eggs  are  usually  four  or  five  in  number:  those  of  the 
Skylark  are  of  a  grayish  brown,  marked  with  darker  spots;  those 
of  the  Woodlark,  dusky,  spotted  with  brown ;  those  of  the  Titlark, 
closely  speckled  with  the  same  colour.  The  Woodlark  occasionally 
sings  during  the  night,  and,  like  the  Titlark,  perches  upon  trees. 
The  three  varieties  we  have  mentioned,  are  very  common  in  this 
country;  and  are  frequently  kept,  particularly  the  Skylark  and 
the  Woodlark,  as  song-birds.  The  Skylark  will  sing  freely  for 
eight  or  nine  months  in  the  year;  he  is  very  hardy,  long-lived, 
and,  if  he  can  be  kept  from  hearing,  and,  consequently,  imitating 


240  THE    AVIARY. 

inferior  birds,  his  song  is  beautiful.  A  fresh  turf  should  be  placed 
as  often  as  possible  in  his  cage;  and  he  may  be  fed  on  egg  boiled 
hard,  chopped  small,  and  mixed  with  about  half  its  quantity  of 
bruised  hemp-seed:  this  food  is  also  proper  for  the  other  Larks; 
to  the  Woodlark  a  little  meat,  either  boiled  or  raw,  but  not  salted, 
may,  occasionally,  be  given  with  advantage.  The  Woodlark  will 
sing  quite  as  long,  and  his  notes  are  nearly  as  beautiful, — and, 
indeed,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  rather  superior  to  those  of  the 
Skylark. 

Water-wagtail  (Motacilla) : — To  adopt  the  language  of  an 
eminent  modern  zoologist,  every  one  must  be  acquainted  with 
the  Common  Water-wagtail,  or  M.  Alba  of  Linnseus  (Fig.  108): 
but  so  very  marked  and  pecu- 
*  liar  is  the  appearance  of  this 
bird,  and  a  few  others  nearly 
allied  to  it,  that  Dr.  Latham, 
in  his  excellent  Ornithology,  has 
instituted  for  these  birds  a  sepa- 
rate genus,  to  which  he  confines 
the  title  of  Motacilla,  or  Wag- 
tail, while  all  the  rest  of  the  Linnaean  Motacilla  he  refers  to  a  genus 
called  Silvia,  or  Warbler.  The  birds  of  this  genus  are  remarkably 
brisk  in  their  motions,  and  continually  jerking  their  long,  slender 
tails  up  and  down :  hence  their  English  name  of  Water-wagtail,  and 
their  Italian  one,  signifying  Shake-tail;  in  Germany  they  have  an 
appellative,  which  may  be  translated  Brookstilts.  These  birds  do 
not  hop,  but  run  along  the  ground;  their  flight  is  weak  and  un- 
dulating; they  are  usually  seen  about  brooks  and  moist  plots  of 
grass,  chasing  the  flies,  which  constitute  their  principal  food.  The 
Common  Water-wagtail  builds  on  the  ground:  the  nest  is  com- 
posed of  moss,  small  fibres  of  roots,  &c.  The  eggs  are  usually  five 
in  number ;  white,  spotted  with  brown.  In  this  country,  the  Wag- 
tail migrates  from  north  to  south  at  the  approach  of  winter. 

Warbler  (Silvia  of  Latham): — The  birds  of  this  genus  differ 
much  in  size  and  habits;  they  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
world;  many  of  them  are  migratory, 
and  others  remain  with  us  all  the  year 
round.  The  bill  is  slender,  weak,  and 
bristles  beset  its  base ;  the  head  is  ge- 
nerally small ;  the  nostrils  small,  and  rather  depressed  (Figs.  109 
and  110,  head  and  foot  of  the  Robin) ;  a  small  membrane  connects 
the  middle  with  the  outer  toe. 


THE     AVIARY.  241 

In  this  genus  naturalists  place  the  Nightingale; — a  bird  famous 
above  all  others  for  the  exquisite  beauty  of  its  song.  There  is 
nothing  peculiarly  elegant  in  its  shape,  or  handsome  in  its  plumage: 
the  upper  part  of  its  body  is  of  an  olive  brown,  the  throat  nearly 
white,  and  the  breast  and  belly  are  of  a  pale  ash  colour;  in  length, 
it  scarcely  exceeds  six  inches.  The  Nightingale,  like  other  birds 
of  this  genus,  feeds  chiefly  on  insects.  It  is  migratory;  visiting 
England  in  the  beginning  of  April,  and  quitting  it,  in  the  month  of 
August,  for  those  climates  where,  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year,  insects  are  found  in  sufficient  quantity  for  its  support.  The 
Nightingale  is  a  solitary  bird,  and  generally  sings  during  the  night: 
of  its  notes,  no  adequate  idea  can  be  conveyed  by  words.  The 
following  is  an  animated  description  of  the  Nightingale's  song, 
taken  from  the  work  of  a  talented  author;  but  it  falls  short  of 
the  delightful  reality: — "  The  leader  of  the  vernal  chorus  begins 
with  alow  and  timid  voice;  and  he  prepares  for  the  hymn  to 
Nature,  by  assaying  his  powers,  and  attuning  his  organs:  by  de- 
grees, the  sound  opens  and  swells; — it  bursts  with  loud  and  vivid 
flashes; — it  flows  with  smooth  volubility; — it  becomes  faint,  and 
murmurs; — it  shakes  with  rapid  and  violent  articulations; — the 
soft  breathings  of  love  and  joy  are  poured  from  his  inmost  soul;  — 
and  every  heart  beats  in  unison,  and  melts  with  delicious  languor. 
But  as  ,this  continued  richness  might  satiate  the  ear,  the  strains 
are,  at  times,  relieved  by  pauses,  which  bestow  dignity  and  ele- 
vation;  the  mild  silence  of  evening  heightens  the  general  effect; 
and  not  a  rival  interrupts  the  solemn  scene." 

Several  of  our  poets  have  enriched  their  works  with  passages 
relative  to  the  Nightingale;  but  they  differ  strangely  as  to  "  the 
humour  of  its  song."  Some  of  them,  as  Milton,  deem  it  most 
musical — most  melancholy.  "  Forlorn  Philomel"  is  a  poetical 
expression,  which  has  long  been  hackneyed,  in  prose  and  verse; 
but  a  serious  poet  of  our  own  times,  has  rightly,  in  our  opinion, 
described  its  song  as  possessed  of  joyous  qualities.  He  says, — 

'Tis  Hie  merry  Nightingale 
That  crowds,  and  hurries,  and  precipitates, 
With  fast  thick  warble,  his  delicious  notes. 

The  hen  entirely  performs  the  task  of  incubation ;  the  male  bird 
brings  her  food  during  the  day;  and,  at  night,  from  some  adja- 
cent spray,  sings  his  sweet  carol,  doubtless  to  solace  and  delight 
her.  With  him  it  is  a  season  of  joy;  and  why,  therefore,  should 
he  make  his  mate  melancholy  by  "  songs  of  sorrow? "  The 


242  THE    AVIARY. 

associations  of  time  and  place  when  and  where  the  Nightingale's 
song  is  heard,  have  given  it,  in  the  imagination  and  memory  of 
many  persons,  a  sadness,  which  neither  the  song  itself  possesses, 
nor  would  l>e  attributed  to  it,  were  the  Nightingale,  like  the 
Lark,  to  "  carol  his  lay"  when  the  sun  is  rising  in  glory  above 
the  hill-top,  and  the  leaves  flutter  in  the  morning  breeze,  and  the 
floweret,  refreshed  by  the  dew-drop,  again  lifts  its  fair  face  to 
heaven,  and  all  nature  looks  jocund. 

Caged  Nightingales  are  usually  fed  with  egg  boiled  hard,  grated, 
.and  mixed  with  boiled  sheep's-heart:  a  mixture  of  bruised  hemp- 
seed  and  bread  is  sometimes  substituted  for  the  egg.  The  food 
must  be  made  fresh  every  day:  and  clean  water,  in  which  the 
bird  may  bathe,  should  be  frequently  placed  in  a  little  pan  on 
the  floor  of  the  cage;  meal-worms  and  ants'  larvae  should,  occa- 
sionally, be  given,  as  a  treat;  particularly  the  latter,  if  they  can 
be  conveniently  procured.  Nightingales  must  not  be  kept  in  any 
of  the  ordinary  bird-cages:  the  proper  cages  for  these  birds,  are 
dark  on  their  sides;  the  perches  are  padded,  and  a  piece  of  green 
baize  is  stretched  across  the  top,  an  inch  or  two  below  the  roof: 
these  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  the  bird  from  hurting  itself, 
which  it  would,  otherwise,  be  in 
danger  of  doing.  When  kept  in  a 
room,  or  an  Aviary  out  of  doors, 
they  are  furnished,  at  (he  mating- 
season,  which  is  about  the  end  of 
April,  with  slender  roots,  dry  grass, 
twigs,  oak-leaves,  hair,  down,  and 
other  fine  and  warm  substances, 
with  which  they  may  build  their 
nests.  The  female  lays  four  or  five 
eggs  of  a  greenish  brown  colour;  and,  in  a  wild  state,  produces 
two,  and  sometimes  three,  broods  in  a  year.  There  are  several 
species  of  this  genus  found  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  (Fig.  Ill 
is  the  American  Nightingale.) 

In  the  same  genus  as  the  Nightingale,  are  classed  several  other 
well-known  birds: — the  Redstart,  the  Blackcap,  the  Whitethroat, 
the  Robin,  the  Wren,  the  Wheatear,  &c. 

The  Blackcap,  the  Whitethroat,  and  the  Redstart,  are  birds 
of  passage,  arriving  in  England  about  the  middle  of  April,  and 
departing  in  September,  or  early  in  October.  With  his  winter 
habits,  the  Robin  has,  doubtless,  made  the  reader  tolerably  well 
acquainted.  In  summer  he  is  rarely  seen,  being  engaged  in  the 


THE    AVIARY. 


243 


cares  of  providing  for  his  little  family.  The  nest  of  the  Robin  is 
usually  made  in  a  solitary  spot,  about  the  roots  of  trees,  or  the 
holes  of  old  buildings,  and  concealed  by  dry  leaves:  we  very 
lately  heard  of  a  pair  of  Robins  having  built  in  an  old  hat,  which 
had  been  set  up  in  a  garden  to  scare  away  small  birds!  The 
Redbreast  is  much  beloved,  and  its  familiarity  has  procured  it 
peculiar  names  in  many  countries:  in  Germany,  it  is  called 
Thomas  Gierdet:  in  Norway,  Peter  Ronsmad;  about  Bornholm, 
Tomi  Liden;  and,  we  need  scarcely  add, 
•  in  England,  Robin  Redbreast. — The  Golden- 
crested  Wren  is  the  smallest  of  British  birds, 
being  scarcely  three  inches  and  a  half  in 
length,  not  more  than  five  in  breadth,  and 
less  than  thirty  grains  in  weight;  it  has  a 
fine  dash  of  scarlet  on  the  top  of  its  head ;  the 
plumage  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  are 
dusky  and  green,,  and  that  of  the  throat  and  belly  white  tinged 
with  green.  (Fig.  112,  the  Golden-crested  Wren.) 

Wheatears  are  very  common,  in  autumn,  about  the  south-coast 
of  England  where,  authors  state,  they  probably  subsist  some  little 
time  before  they  take  their  departure ;  being,  according  to  several 
writers,  migratory  birds,  and  visit- 
ing this  country  about  the  middle 
of  March.  Although  not  bigger 
than  Larks,  Wheatears  are  highly 
esteemed  as  birds  for  the  table: 
they  are  caught  in  great  numbers," 
in  the  harvest-time,  on  the  coast 
of  Sussex;  and,  taking  their  size 
into  consideration,  fetch  very  high 
prices.  Wheatears  frequently  build  in  old  rabbit-burrows,  or  by 
the  sides  of  stones  :  the  nest  is  made  of  dry  grass,  moss,  and  wool, 
and  lined  with  feathers;  and  the  hen  lays  five  or  six  eggs  of  a  light 
blue  colour,  encompassed,  at  the  larger  end,  with  a  belt  of  a  deeper 
hue.  (Fig.  113,  the  Wheatear.) 

Titmouse  (Parus): — The  individuals  of  this  genus  are  remark- 
able for  their  vivacity,  and  the  courage  and  strength  which  they 
display.  They  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  are 
exceedingly  prolific.  Their  food  is  insects;  and  they  may  often 
be  seen,  in  the  spring  months,  dexterously  picking  out  caterpillars 
from  the  opening  buds.  Their  nests  are  constructed  with  most 
exquisite  art ;  they  lay  a  considerable  number  of  eggs,  and  are 
21 


244  THE    AVIARY. 

very  attentive  to  their  young.  Possessed  of  great  intrepidity,  they 
attack  birds  much  larger  than  themselves:  Buffon  says,  they 
pursue  the  Owl  with  great  fury;  and,  in  their 
attacks,  chiefly  aim  at  the  eyes.  They  have  short 
conical  bills,  bristled  at  the  nostrils,  which  are  small 
and  round;  the  tongue  is  truncated,  and  terminated 
by  three  or  four  bristles  (Fig.  114,  beak  and  tongue 
of  Titmouse.)  There  are  several  species  of  Titmice;  the  most 
common  of  which  is  the  Blue-cap,  or  Tom-tit,  as  it  is  frequently 
called.  This  little  creature,  which  is  not  above  four  inches  and  a 
half  in  length,  lays  upwards  of  fourteen  eggs.  Grain,  as  well 
as  insects,  are  devoured  by  this  bird:  it  will  peck  bones  on  dung- 
hills; and,  as  Mr.  White,  in  his  Natural  History  of  Selborne, 
very  accurately  states,  is  a  vast  admirer  of  suet,  and  haunts  but- 
chers' shops.  The  same  author  observes,  that  it  will  also  pick  holes 
in  apples  left  on  the  ground,  and  be  well  entertained  with  the 
seeds  of  a  sunflower.  We  recollect  an  instance,  in  support  of 
the  latter  statement,  which  occurred  two  or  three  years  ago: — 
In  a  small  garden,  attached  to  a  house  in  a  very  populous  part 
of  the  metropolis,  several  fine  sunflowers,  about  the  time  the 
seeds  began  to  ripen,  were  visited  by  a  Blue  Titmouse,  who, — 
notwithstanding  he  was  frequently  scared  by  persons  passing  to 
and  fro,  and,  on  two  or  three  occasions,  with  difficulty  escaped 
the  claws  of  a  cat, — continued  to  feed  on  them  for  above  a  week. 
At  that  time  of  the  year,  insects  were  getting  scarce ;  but  there 
were  a  few  stragglers  still  lingering  about  the  sunflowers  and 
adjacent  plants;  and  when  the  Blue-cap  happened  to  meet  with 
them,  his  exultation  was  truly  ludicrous.  Mr.  White  informs  us, 
that  during  deep  snows,  he  has  seen  the  Great  Titmouse,  while  it 
hung  with  its  back  downwards,  draw  straws,  lengthwise,  from  the 
eaves  of  thatched  houses,  in  order  to  pull  out  the  flies  that  were 
concealed  between  them. 

The  Long-tailed  Titmouse  (Fig.  115)  constructs  a  very  curious 
nest:   it  is  of  an  oval  form,  with  a 
115  small  hole  near  the  upper  part  for  an 

entrance:  the  principal  material  of 
the  nest  is  moss,  bound  together  by 
the  aurelia  of  insects ;  it  is  lined  with 
down  and  feathers,  so  arranged,  that 
their  soft  webs  all  point  inwards.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country,  the  nests  of  this  species  are  called 
Long-pots;  and,  in  other  parts,  Feather-pokes.  These  active  and 


THE    AVIARY.  245 

busy  little  birds,  like  the   other  Titmice,  feed   on   insects:  they 
lay  from    fifteen  to  eighteen   eggs,  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea, 
generally  white,  but  sometimes  freckled  with  delicate  spots  of  red . 
Swallow  (Hirundo) : — Of  the  Swallow  genus,  this  country  is 
visited  by  four  species: — the  Chimney  Swallow,  Sand  Marten,  House 
J^L  |"       Marten,  and  Swift.     The  bill  is  small,  bent, 

IB  broad,  and  depressed  at  the  base  (Fig.  116,  the 
|^r  (&![  head  of  the  Swift;)  the  head  is  flat,  and  the 
opening  of  the  mouth  wide:  the  tongue  is 
cloven,  short,  and  broad ;  and  the  tail  forked.  The  foot  of  the  Swift 
is  very  remarkable, — all  the  four  toes  pointing  forwards  (Fig.  117). 
The  Swallow  tribes,  from  the  cheerful  days  of  spring,  when 
they  first  make  their  appearance,  until  the  time  of  their  departure, 
in  autumn,  almost  constantly  present  themselves  to  our  eyes. 
These  birds  are  more  truly  creatures  of  the  air  than  any  of  their 
feathered  brethren:  they  live  on  the  wing;  and  their  brilliant 
career,  from  morning  till  night, — chasing  the  nimble  little  in- 
sects on  which  they  feed, — is  rarely  interrupted ;  except  to  gather 
materials  for  their  nest, — to  build  their  snug  "  little  mud  cabins," 
— to  brood  over  their  eggs, — or  to  carry  food  to  their  nestlings. 
They  are  perfectly  harmless,  social,  entertaining,  and  productive 
of  much  benefit,  by  clearing  the  air  of  numberless  insects,  which, 
if  not  reduced  by  the  Swallow  tribe,  would,  in  the  summer  season, 
be  exceedingly  troublesome.  A  Swallow,  we  are  informed  by  a 
modern  writer,  which  was  taken  young,  and  domesticated,  ate 
from  seven  hundred  to  a  thousand  flies  a-day ;  and  Mr.  Henry 
Woods  states,  that  he  found  in  three  Swifts,  which  he  dissected, 
so  many  small  black  flies,  that  they  weighed  nearly  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce,  and  which,  from  their  minuteness,  must  have  amounted  to 
countless  myriads! 

Naturalists  seem  to  have  had  considerable  difficulty  in  disposing 
of  the  Swallow  tribe  during  the  winter  months.  Some  have  been 
of  opinion,  that  these  birds  do  not  seek  more  genial  climes,  at 
the  approach  of  winter,  but  remain  in  a  torpid  state  during  the 
cold  months,  in  hollow  trees  and  under  banks ;  others  assert,  that 
they  retire  to  rivers  and  lakes,  in  autumn,  and  lie  in  clusters  under 
water  until  the  spring ;  but,  however  well-authenticated  the  facts 
may  be,  which  have  been  adduced  in  support  of  these  statements, 
it  is  clear  that  the  Swallows  are  migratory  birds,  for  they  have 
been  met  with,  on  several  occasions,  at  sea:  vast  numbers  of  them, 
as  it  is  recorded,  have  been  known  to  alight  on  the  rigging  of 
a  ship,  in  the  evening,  and  disappear  in  the  morning.  According 


246  THE     AVIARY. 

to  an  author  of  reputation,  these  apparent  contradictions  may 
be  reconciled:  he  says,  that  while,  on  the  one  hand,  partial  mi- 
grations of  the  Swallow  tribe  have  been  fully  proved  to  take 
place,  the  numerous  well-established  accounts  of  Swallows  being 
found  in  a  torpid  state,  leave  us  no  room  to  doubt,  that  the  latter 
broods  of  the  year,  not  being  strong  enough  for  a  flight  to  the 
shores  of  Africa,  conceal  themselves  in  holes,  and  other  hiding- 
places,  until  the  spring.  On  one  occasion  only  have  we  ever  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  these  birds  congregate  previously  to  their  annual 
migration;  and  we  have  seldom  witnessed  a  more  interesting 
sight.  At  the  latter  end  of  autumn,  some  years  ago,  the  Swallows 
began  to  assemble  about  a  row  of  houses,  on  an  elevated  situation, 
in  the  west  of  England;  their  numbers  were  increased,  daily,  by 
the  arrival  of  other  flocks ;  and  at  the  end  of  a  week  they  amounted 
to  myriads:  clinging  to  the  window-frames,  and  every  little  pro- 
jection, they  nearly  blackened  the  face  of  the  buildings.  At 
intervals  they  took  short  flights,  darkening  the  earth  beneath  them 
as  they  flew:  on  these  occasions  not  a  single  bird  was  left  behind; 
they  all  seemed  to  cast  themselves  upon  the  wing  at  the  same 
moment.  By  degrees  the  circle  of  their  flights  was  increased; 
there  appeared  to  be  no  longer  a  daily  accession  to  their  numbers ; 
and,  early  in  October,  they  disappeared,  in  one  vast  body,  at  day- 
break. 

In  the  same  year,  and  nearly  at  the  same  place,  we  remember 
having  witnessed  an  aerial  fight  between  a  flock  of  Swifts  and  a 
long-winged  Hawk.  We  had,  for  some  time,  been  gazing  at  the 
bird  of  prey,  alternately  hovering  in  the  air,  without  advancing  a 
feather's  length,  for  nearly  a  minute  together; — then  suddenly 
darting  downward,  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow, — recovering 
itself  within  a  few  yards  of  the  earth,  and  rising  again,  by  a  bold 
and  rapid  flight,  to  its  former  elevated  station; — sailing  thence  by 
a  beautiful  descent,  with  out-stretched  and  motionless  pinions, 
towards  a  distant  wood; — wheeling  round,  and  again  returning, 
with  miraculous  speed,  and  exhibiting  all  those  powers  of  wing 
for  which  its  species  are  remarkable, — when,  by  degrees,  it  was 
surrounded  by  a  flock  of  Swifts,  of  whose  presence  it  seemed, 
for  some  time,  careless; — continuing  its  beautiful  and  varied  flight, 
while  the  Swifts  approached  nearer  and  nearer,  and  seemed  pre- 
paring for  an  attack.  Suddenly,  they  uttered  a  wild  and  general 
scream,  and,  with  one  accord,  advanced  upon  the  Hawk.  In 
another  instant,  the  scream  ceased,  the  Hawk  had  soared  above 
the  flock,  and  two  of  the  Swifts  were  falling  lifeless  to  the  earth. 


THE    AVIARY.  247 

By  no  means  daunted,  the  assailants,  in  a  short  time  recovered 
from  the  disorder  into  which  they  had  been  thrown ;  and,  gradu- 
ally rising,  were  soon  upon  a  level  with  the  Hawk,  and  renewed 
the  assault :  the  struggle  was  more  severe,  and  of  greater  duration 
than  before ;  for  nearly  half  a  minute  the  Hawk  was  completely 
concealed  by  his  enemies,  who  seemed  clinging  to  him  on  all 
sides ;  they  appeared  like  a  small  dark  mass  of  many  wings 
rapidly  descending,  from  which  maimed  birds  dropped,  at  short 
intervals,  and  a  continued  scream  proceeded,  until  the  mass  was 
dispersed,  and  the  Hawk  again  triumphantly  soared  above  the 
Swifts,  numbers  of  which  now  retreated  from  the  strife;  some  of 
them  returning  to  the  usual  elevation  of  their  flight;  while  others, 
apparently  with  great  difficulty,  supported  themselves  towards 
the  nearest  place  of  rest.  But  the  main  body  still  continued  the 
fight:  another  struggle  ensued,  which  terminated  precisely  as  the 
second;  and  the  Hawk  now  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  to 
escape,  by  high  soaring,  from  the  Swifts,  many  of  which  followed 
him  to  an  immense  height,  and  boldly  continued  to  assail  him,  as 
long  as  we  could  distinguish  their  motions. 

The  Common  Swallow  (Fig.  118)  builds  its  curiously-con- 
structed nest  on  the  insides  of  chimneys:  it  is  of  a  cylindrical 
shape,  open  at  the  top,  made  of 
mud  mixed  up  with  straw  and 
hair,  and  lined  with  feathers. 
The  nest  of  the  Marten  is  made 
of  the  same  materials,  and  is 
usually,  as  our  readers  well  re- 
collect, fixed  under  the  eaves  of 
houses,  or  at  the  corners  of  win- 
dows. Wherever  it  may  be  built,  the  nest  of  the  Marten  is  rarely 
disturbed. 

The  Sand  Marten  is  the  least  of  our  Swallows:  it  builds  at 
the  ends  of  deep  holes,  which  it  makes  in  sandy  banks,  near 
the  rivers  which  it  frequents;  the  materials  of  the  nest,  which  is 
slovenly  made,  are  feathers,*dry  grass,  and  straw. 

The  Swift,  which  is  the  largest  of  the  British  Hirundines, 
soars  higher  than,  and  never  associates  with,  the  Common  Swallow: 
it  delights  in  flying  rapidly  round  high  buildings;  and  builds  its 
nest  in  steeples,  towers,  or  other  equally-elevated  places.  The  legs 
of  the  Swifts  are  so  short,  that  if  they  happen,  by  accident,  to  fall 
on  the  ground,  they  experience  considerable  difficulty  in  rising 
again ;  yet  their  nests  are  composed  of  things  which  are  usually 
21* 


248  THE     AVIARY. 

found  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth;  such  as  moss,  dry  grass, 
feathers,  bits  of  hemp,  pieces  of  linen,  silk,  &c.  It  is  true  that 
most  of  these  materials  are  occasionally  carried  to  some  height 
by  the  wind;  but  scarcely  in  sufficient  quantity,  one  would 
imagine,  for  the  construction  of  their  nests:  it  is,  however,  pos- 
sible, that  they  may  collect  enough,  at  the  usual  elevation  of 
their  flight,  to  serve  their  purposes,  or  gather  the  articles  as  they 
skim  over  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Some  authors  assert,  that 
they  rob  the  House  Sparrow  of  his  hoard;  and  even  frequently 
expel  him  from  his  chosen  retreat,  to  occupy  it  themselves.  The 
eggs  of  the  Swift  and  Sand  Marten  are  white;  those  of  the  Chimney 
Swallow,  white,  speckled  with  red;  and  of  the  Marten,  white,  with 
a  dusky  tinge  at  the  larger  end. 

Goatsucker  (Caprimulgus)  : — The  Night-jar  is  the  only  bird 
of  its  genus  known  in  England:  it  is  very  commonly  called  the 
Goatsucker;  which  name  it  obtained  from  a  vulgar  error,  which 
has  been  long  exploded,  that  it  sucked  the  blood  of  goats.  In 
addition  to  the  two  names  which  we  have  mentioned,  this  bird 
is  sometimes  called  the  Churn  Owl,  the  Dor  Hawk,  the  Night 
Swallow,  and  the  Fern  Owl. 

The  bill  of  the  Night-jar  is  usually  flat,  and  rather  hooked  at 
the  point ;  from  the  upper  mandible  spring  several  strong  bristles, 
which  enable  it  more  effectually  to  secure 
its  prey,  consisting  of  moths,  beetles, 
and  other  insects  (Fig.  119,  the  head  and 
tongue  of  the  Night-jar.)  A  membrane 
connects  the  toes  as  far  as  the  first  joint: 
the  middle  one  exceeds  the  others  in 
length,  and  one  side  of  the  claw  is  serrated  (Figs.  120  and  121,  toe 
and  foot  of  the  Goatsucker.)  Mr.  White  has  expressed  an  opinion, 
that  the  foot  of  the  Night-jar  is  useful 
in  securing  its  prey;  as  he  observed, 
that  the  bird,  while  on  the  wing,  fre- 
quently put  up  its  foot,  as  if  it  were 
in  the  act  of  conveying  something  to 
its  mouth:  most  probably,  it  catches  those  large  moths,  on  which 
it  is  known  the  bird  feeds,  with  its  foot,  and  tears  them  to  pieces 
with  the  hook  of  its  beak.  One  of  the  correspondents  of  the 
Magazine  of  Natural  History,  for  November,  1828,  states,  that  the 
stomach  of  one  of  these  birds,  which  he  opened,  was  crammed 
with  the  undigested  remains  of  Melolontha  vulgaris,  and  Hepialus 
humuli.  (See  Fig.  44,  p.  140,  and  Fig.  103,  p.  176,  of  this  work.) 


THE  AVIARY.  249 

The  Night-jar  is  a  bird  of  passage:  it  arrives  in  this  country 
so  late  as  the  end  of  May,  and  leaves  us  early  in  September.  It 
is  a  solitary  bird,  and,  unless  disturbed,  is  seen  only  in  the  evening, 
or  night;  except  on  gloomy  days,  when  the  sun  is  not  visible. 
The  female  lays  her  eggs  on  the  bare  ground:  they  are  two  or 
three  in  number,  of  a  dull  white  colour,  spotted  with  brown. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  any  accurate,  particular  description  of 
the  plumage  of  the  Night-jar,  which  is  a  beautiful  medley  of 
colours,  chiefly  brown,  of  various  shades,  dashed  with  black,  rust 
colour,  and  white.  The  male  has  one 
oval  spot  of  white  near  the  end  of 
each  of  the  first  three  quill-feathers, 
and  another  on  each  of  the  outer 
k  feathers  of  the  tail.  In  length  it  is 
k  generally  between  ten  and  eleven 
finches.  It  is  often  seen  flying  about 
commons,  in  the  dusk  of  the  evening, 
in  quest  of  its  prey.  When  perched,  it  utters  a  peculiar  jarrfng 
cry,  from  which  it  takes  one  of  its  names:  it  has  but  one  other 
note,  which  resembles  the  buzzing  noise  of  a  spinning-wheel. 
(Fig.  122,  the  Night-jar.) 

There  is  a  species  of  this  genus  in  Virginia,  called  Whip-poor- 
Will,  which,  like  the  Goatsucker  known  in  this  country,  is  con- 
sidered a  bird  of  ill  omen. 

Having  thus  offered  a  brief  notice  of  nearly  all  the  genera  of 
this,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  the  next  order  of  Birds. 

STRUTHIOUS. 

In  the  Linnaean  system,  the  Struthious  birds  form  a  genus  of 
the  GALLING:  they  have  been  arranged  by  other  naturalists 
in  a  distinct  order,  having  three  divisions,  Dodo,  Ostrich,  and 
Cassowary.  The  two  latter  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the 
genus  Otis:  like  the  Bustard,  in  the  language  of  Dr.  Shaw,  they 
seem  to  be  of  an  ambiguous  cast;  and  may,  with  almost  equal 
propriety,  be  placed  in  either  order,  GALLING  or  GRALL.E: 
they  have  long  and  powerful  legs  and  feet,  without  the  hinder 
toe,  well  formed  for  running;  and  wings,  useless  for  the  purpose 
of  flight,  but  calculated,  perhaps,  to  increase  their  speed. 

Dodo: — The  wings  of  the  Dodo  are  somewhat  similar  to  those 
of  the  Ostrich  and  Cassowary ;  but,  in  its  general  appearance,  it 
differs  from  these,  and,  indeed,  all  other  known  birds.  We  are, 


250 


THE   AVIARY. 


perhaps,  incorrect  in  speaking  of  the  Dodo  in  the  present  tense; 
for,  in  all  probability,  it  is  now  extinct.  There  is  not  even  a 
perfect  specimen  to  be  found;  still,  no  doubts  are  entertained  of 
its  having  once  been  in  existence.  The  only  authentic  original 
figure  of  the  Dodo,  is  a  painting  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, which  is  said  to  have  been  taken  from  the 
living  bird,  brought  into  Holland  by  the  Dutch, 
soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  East  Indies,  by  the 
way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Beneath  the 
painting  is  a  Dodo's  leg,  in  a  fine  state  of  pre- 
servation, which  is  very  thick,  in  proportion  to  its 
length,  "  and  satisfies  the  eye  of  every  ornithologist, 
that  it  cannot  belong  to  any  other  known  bird." 
(Fig.  123.)  The  Dodo  must  have  been  as  incapable  of  running, 
with  any  degree  of  speed,  as  flying :  it  may  be  pronounced  the  most 
inelegant,  awkward,  and  clumsy-looking  creature  of  the  whole 
feathered  tribes.  In  size,  it  exceeds  the  Turkey.  The  neck  is 
thick  and  pursy;  the  body  heavy,  lumpish,  and  nearly  cubical; 
the  tail  disproportioned,  and  not  in 
the  usual  place.  The  plumage  is 
represented  as  being  a  variegation 
of  black  and  white,  with  a  slight 
mixture  of  yellow;  the  immense 
mandibles  open  far  back  in  the 
head,  behind  the  eyes;  the  upper 
one  is  black,  except  at  the  hook, 
where  there  is  a  red  spot;  the  legs 
and  feet  are  yellow,  and  the  nails 
black;  the  toes  are  four  in  number, 
and  one  of  them  points  backward. 
The  Dodo  Was  formerly  found  in 
the  Isle  of  France;  but,  for  the 
last  two  centuries,  not  a  single  individual  of  the  race  has  been  met 
with.  The  Dutch  called  it  Walgh  Vogel,  or  the  disgusting  bird ; 
as  well  on  account  of  its  ugly  figure  as  its  offensive  smell;  the 
flesh,  however,  is  said  to  have  been  palatable  and  wholesome 
food.  (Fig.  124,  the  Dodo.) 

Ostrich: — The  Common  Ostrich  is  a  native  of  the  hottest 
parts  of  Africa,  and  exceeds  all  other  birds  in  size,  being  often 
nearly  eight  feet  in  height,  and  six  in  length,  from  the  top  of  the 
head  to  the  base  of  the  tail,  when  the  neck  is  extended  in  a  right 
line  with  the  body.  The  head  and  neck  are  flesh-coloured,  and 


THE     AVIARY. 


251 


nearly  bare  (Fig.  125,  head  of  the  Ostrich) ;   the  tongue  is  small 
and  short,  and  the  bill  slightly  flattened.      The  foot  is  furnished 
'  with  two  toes  only;   the  exterior  toe 

is  much  shorter  than  the  inner  one 
(Fig.  126,  foot.)  The  wings  and  tail 
of  both  male  and  female  are  white ; 
the  body  of  the  former  is  black,  and 
that  of  the  latter,  brown.  The  fea- 
thers are  different  from  those  of  any 
other  bird,  being  beautifully  soft,  and 
having  the  shafts  situate  exactly  in 
the  middle  of  the  webs.  Various 
statements  have  been  given,  as  to  the 
habits  of  these  birds.  The  ancient 
accounts  of  the  Ostrich  laying  her 
egg  on  the  sand,  and  leaving  it  to 
be  hatched  by  the  warmth  of  the 
sun,  is  now  exploded;  it  having  been  satisfactorily  shown,  that 
both  male  and  female  alternately  incubate.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  Ostrich  lays  above  fifty  eggs;  but  this  fact  has  been 
disputed:  there  is  no  doubt  that  even  a  greater  number  of  eggs 
may  have  been  found  together;  but  it  would  appear,  by  the 
statements  of  some  travellers  of  high  reputation,  that  the  male 
is  frequently  accompanied  by  three  or  four  females,  all  of  which 
lay  in  the  same  nest,  and  take  their  turns  in  the  office  of  incu- 
bation; the  male  occasionally  relieving  them,  by  performing  that 
duty  himself.  The  male  Ostrich  is  particularly  attentive  to  the 
young  birds ;  and  he  has  been  seen  with  two  or  three  different 
broods  at  the  same  time  under  his  protection:  this  circumstance 
has  been  accounted  for,  by  the  supposition,  that  he  has  met  with 
and  beaten  off  other  male  birds  of  the  same  species,  and  taken 
the  broods  of  the  vanquished  into  his  own  keeping.  It  appears 
equally  probable,  that  the  young  birds  of  various  sizes,  thus  said 
to  be  seen  with  him,  may  be  the  produce  of  the  eggs  of  his  three 
or  four  mates,  laid,  perhaps,  in  separate  nests;  or,  it  may  be,  in 
the  same,  but  at  different  periods.  While  the  cock  takes  charge 
of  the  young  birds  which  are  first  produced,  the  hens,  or  those, 
at  least,  which  have  laid  late,  may  continue  to  incubate  until  the 
whole  of  the  eggs  are  hatched.  According  to  some  authors,  the 
provident  mother-bird  rolls  two  or  three  of  her  first-laid  eggs 
to  a  little  distance  from  the  nest,  and  then  breaks  them;  in  a 
short  time  they  are  covered  with  flies  and  maggots,  upon  which 


252  THE    AVIARY. 

the  young  Ostriches  make  their  first  meal.  In  the  absence  of 
good  evidence,  as  to  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  it  will 
doubtless  occur  to  die  reader,  that  the  eggs,  thus  affording  food 
to  the  newly-hatched  Ostriches,  may  have  been  rolled  out  of  the 
nest  and  broken,  by  accident,  at  an  early  period  of  the  incubation; 
or  that  they  may,  perhaps,  have  heen  addled,  and  cracked,  sub- 
sequently to  the  departure  of  the  brood  from  the  nest;  in  the 
latter  case  they  would  offer  a  very  early  supply,  though  not  the 
first  meal  of  insects,  to  the  young  family.  The  Ostrich  bears  a 
greater  resemblance  to  quadrupeds  than  any  other  of  the  fea- 
thered tribes;  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  connecting  link  between 
the  two  classes  of  animals.  Voracious  in  the  extreme,  and  en- 
dowed with  strong  digestive  powers,  the  Ostrich  greedily  devours 
almost  every  substance  which  falls  in  its  way;  it  is  remarkably 
swift  of  foot;  and  though  possessing  great  strength,  is  harmless 
and  inoffensive,  unless  injured  or  provoked. 

Cassowary: — In  the  same  genus  with  the  Ostrich,  Linnaeus 
placed  the  Cassowary ;  but,  since  the  days  of  that  celebrated  natu- 
ralist, it  has  been  considered  as  a  distinct  genus. 

The  Cassowary  is  a  native  of  the  East-India  islands;  it  is 
between  five  and  six  feet  in  height;  covered  with  remarkably  long, 
narrow  black  feathers,  springing,  in  pairs,  from  one  shaft,  or  base ; 

they  are  alike  all  over  the 
body,  and  fall,  in  a  sin- 
gular manner,  over  the 
sides,  so  that  the  small 
wing  of  the  bird  is  not 
perceptible:  in  the  front 
of  the  neck  there  are  two 
wattles,  resembling  those 
of  a  cock,  irregular  on  their  surface,  and  of  a  mingled  red  and  light 
blue  colour ;  a  hard  and  horny  crest,  or  helmet,  rises  between  the 
base  of  the  upper  mandible  and  the  middle  of  the  head  (Fig.  127) ; 
the  toes,  which  are  three  in  number,  all  pointing  forward,  are 
armed  with  strong  black  claws  (Fig.  128) ;  the  legs  are  remarkably 
strong,  and  the  bird  is  capable  of  running  with  great  speed.  The 
Cassowary  is  exceedingly  ravenous ;  but  it  is  said,  does  not  seem 
to  entertain  a  predilection  for  any  particular  sort  of  food,  but,  like 
the  Ostrich,  swallows  almost  anything  edible.  The  eggs  of  this 
bird  are  of  a  grayish  ash-colour,  marked  with  green,  and  measure 
about  fifteen  inches  in  circumference  one  way,  and  nearly  twelve 
the  other. 


THE     AVIARY. 


253 


The  Cassowary  of  New  South  Wales  is  thus  characterised  by 
Latham : — It  is  blackish ;  the  crown  flat ;  its  body  bristly ;  its  head 
and  neck  planted  with  quills,  and  its  legs  serrated  behind.  It 
differs  materially  from  the  other  Cassowary,  by  wanting  the  horn 

on  the  crown  of  the  head ; 
the  head  and  beak  are  also 
much  more  like  those  of  the 
Ostrich;  the  tongue  has  a 
broad  root,  serrated  sides, 
and  pointed  top.  This  bird 
is  exceedingly  swift  of  foot, 
and  strikes  severely  with  its 
heel  when  pursued.  It  fre- 
quently measures  nearly 
seven  feet  when  standing 
erect.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Botany  Bay,  the 
New-Holland  Cassowary  was  formerly  common,  and  often  hunted 
by  the  colonists  for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is  said  to  be 
similar  in  flavour  to  beef.  The  hen  lays  a  number  of  eggs, 
which  are  rather  less  than  those  of  the  Ostrich ;  they  are  nearly 
of  an  oval  shape,  and  of  a  bottle-green  colour.  The  principal 
material  of  the  nest  is  dried  fern :  it  is  usually  constructed  on 
the  ground,  on  the  borders  of  a  swamp  (Fig.  129,  Cassowary,  or 
Emu,  of  New  South  Wales.) 

CLOVEN-FOOTED,  OR  WADERS. 

The  WADERS  have,  in  general,  remarkably  long  legs;  hence 
their  Linna3an  name,  GRALL^E,  which  signifies  a  pair  of  stilts. 
Their  toes  are  divided,  or  slightly  connected,  by  a  membrane  at 
the  base ;  and  they  seem  formed  for  living  on  the  margins  of  lakes, 

the  sea-shore,  and  among 
ponds  and  shallow  waters,  in 
marshes,  and  low  countries. 
Most  of  them  have  very  long 
bills,  by  which  they  are  ena- 
bled to  perforate  the  soft  mud 
and  weeds,  in  which  they  find 
a  great  part  of  their  food 
(Figs.  130  and  131,  the  beak 
and  foot  of  the  Curlew) ;  while  others  have  shorter  legs  and  bills,  and 
seem  adapted  only  to  prey  on  such  insects,  worms,  &c.  as  are  found 


254 


THE    AVIARY. 


near  the  surface  (Figs.  132  and  133,  beak  and  foot  of  Moor-hen.) 
The  Cranes,  Herons,  Curlews,  Snipes,  Sand-pipers,  and  birds  of 
132  133  similar  formation  and  habits, 

are  included  in  the  order  of 
WADERS,  of  which  we  shall 
particularise  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  genera. 
Spoonbill  (Platalea) : — The  bill,  in  birds  of  this  genus,  is  long, 
thin,  and  flattened  (Fig.  134) ;  the  end  is  dilated,  so  as  to  bear 
some  resemblance  to  a  spoon  (Fig.  135,  a  front  view  of  the  bill); 
135  the  tongue  is  small  and 
pointed;  the  nostrils  are 
placed  near  the  base  of 
the  bill,  and  the  toes  con- 
nected, near  their  junc- 
tion by  webs,  which  light- 
ly border  them  to  their 
extremities.  (Fig.  136.) 
These  birds  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  globe,  but  in  small  numbers  only:  they  fre- 
quent the  sea-shore,  and  such  marshy  places  as  are  occasionally 
visited  by  flood-tides;  their  food  consists  of  small  fish,  water- 
insects,  and  worms,  which  their  bills  are  admirably  adapted  for 
taking,  in  soft  mud  or  slimy  ponds. 

The  Common  Spoonbill  (Fig.  137)  is  about  two  feet  and  a  half 
in  length;  its  plumage  is  generally  described  as  being  entirely 
white ;  but  it  has  occasionally  been 
seen  with  black  tips  to  the  quills. 
The  nest  of  the  Spoonbill  is  usually 
built  at  the  top  of  a  tall  tree :  the 
hen  lays  three  or  four  eggs,  which 
are  white,  speckled  with  red.  To  this 
country,  the  Spoonbills  are  only 
occasional  visitants.  In  Holland, 
where  they  were  once  numerous, 
they  are  now  become  very  rare. 
Bewick  states,  that  they  are  to  be 
met  with  in  all  the  intermediate  low 
countries,  from  the  Feroe  Islands  to 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  North 
America  there  are  two  singular  species  of  this  genus:  one  of 
which  scarcely  exceeds  a  Sparrow  in  bulk;  the  other  resembles  in 


THE    AVIARY.  255 

size  the  European  Spoonbill,  but  its  plumage  is  of  a  beautiful  rose 
colour. 

Jabiru  (Mycteria) : — In  this  genus  the  bill  is  large,  pointed, 
133  and  turns  slightly  upward  (Fig.  138)  ;  the 

back  of  the  head  is  bare ;  the  legs  are  re- 
markably long,  and  the  foot  of  the  common 
form,  having  three  toes  forward  and  one 
behind.  The  habits  of  the  birds  of  this 
genus  are  supposed  to  be  nearly  similar  to 
those  of  the  Herons,  to  which  they  bear  a  considerable  resemblance. 
The  Common  Jabiru  is  a  native  of  North  America:  it  is  a  very 
large  bird,  with  a  bare  black  neck,  encircled  at  the  base  with  a 
broad  zone  of  red;  the  tail,  and  the  long  feathers  of  the  wing,  are 
black;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  white.  The  beak  of  the  Com- 
mon Jabiru  is  black;  in  this  respect  the  Senegal  species  differs 
from  it;  having  the  bill  of  a  whitish  colour,  with  a  red  base,  and 
a  broad  black  bar  crossing  it  near  the  middle.  The  New  Holland 
Jabiru,  which  is  smaller  than  the  former  species,  has  the  neck 
covered  with  feathers  of  a  varying  black  and  dark-green  hue. 

Heron  (Ardea): — The  birds  of  this  genus  are  very  numerous: 
139  they  comprise  all  the    Storks,    Cranes, 

Herons,  &c.  Their  food  consists  of  fish, 
frogs,  &c.  and,  occasionally,  grain  and 
herbage.  They  frequent  lakes  and  fens, 
and  usually,  but  with  some  exceptions, 
build  their  nests  upon  the  ground. 
They  have  long,  straight,  slender,  sharp- 
pointed  bills  (Fig.  139,  beak  of  Heron)  ; 
legs  of  great  length ;  feet  of  the  common  form,  with  the  middle 
toe,  in  some  species,  pectinated,  or  toothed  (Fig.  140,  foot  of  the 

Heron . )  The  Common  Heron 
measures  about  three  feet  in 
length;  it  rarely  weighs  more 
than  as  many  pounds.  The 
body  of  this  bird  is  always  thin, 
and  its  appearance  miserable. 
Although  rapacious  in  the  extreme,  it  is  cowardly  in  its  disposition: 
it  will  fly  from  the  Sparrow-Hawk ;  and,  in  those  days  when 
falconry  was  one  of  the  principal  diversions  of  the  great  in  this 
country,  the  Heron  was  ranked  among  the  royal  game :  it  was 
frequently  served  up  to  table,  on  extraordinary  occasions;  and  a 
penalty  of  twenty  shillings  (an  important  fine  in  those  times)  was 
22 


256 


THE    AVIARY. 


attached  to  the  offence  of  destroying  its  eggs.      For  hours  together 
the  Heron  will  stand  motionless  in  the  water,  watching  its  prey, 

and  appearing  more  like  the 
stump  of  a  tree  than  a  living 
creature.  It  will  traverse 
immense  distances  in  quest 
of  waters  in  which  its  food 
abounds;  and  soars  so  high 
in  its  flights,  as  scarcely  to  be 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The 
plumage  of  the  Heron  is  prin- 
cipally white,  black,  gray,  and 
ashy.  The  male  has  a  long, 
pendent,  black  crest,  of  which 
the  female  is  destitute.  The 
nests  of  these  birds  are  often  built  on  the  tops  of  high  trees:  the 
hen  lays  four  or  five  light  bluish-green  eggs.  (Fig.  141,  the  Heron.) 
The  Stork  is  larger  than  the  Heron:  its  plumage  is  white, 
except  some  parts  of  the  wings  and  the  scapulars,  which  are  black. 
These  birds  are  now  rarely  seen  in  Britain.  In  low  countries,  which 
abound  with  swamps  and  pools,  as  their  food  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  reptiles,  Storks  are  most  welcome  visitors  :  they 
usually  resort  to  the  neighbourhood  of  populous  places;  and  their 
nests,  which  are  considered  sacred,  are  built  on  the  tops  of  chim- 
neys, in  steeples,  or  other  high  buildings:  the  hen  lays  from  two 
to  four  eggs.  Both  the  parent  birds  incubate,  and  are  particularly 
attentive  to  the  young.  Storks  are  migratory;  but  they  merely- 
quit  one  temperate  climate  for  another, — going  northward  in  sum- 
mer, and  returning  to  the  south  in  winter.  Previously  to  their 
migrations,  the  Storks  assemble  in  great  numbers,  and  seem  to 
hold  consultations  together ;  although  they  are  remarkably  quiet 
at  other  times,  on  these  occasions  they  make  a  great  noise,  and  a 
continued  bustle  is  visible  throughout  the  assembly. 

The  Crane  is  still  larger 
than  the  Stork,  and  differs  as 
well  from  that  bird  as  from 
the  Heron,  in  the  singular 
conformation  of  its  windpipe, 
which,  instead  of  following  the 
same  direction  as  in  the  gene- 
rality of  birds  enters  into  a  cavity,  adapted  for  its  reception,  in  the 
breast-bone,  before  it  passes  into  the  lungs  (Fig.  142.) 


THE     AVIARY. 


257 


The  plumage  of  the  Common  Crane  is  principally  of  an  ash 
colour ;  a  very  elegant  crest  of  feathers  (which  curl  at  the  ends,  and 
resemble  the  valuable  plumes 
of  the  Ostrich,  as  well  in  texture 
as  position,)  springs  from  the 
pinion  and  falls  over  the  tail. 
Among  the  various  species  of 
Cranes,  the  Crowned  Crane, 
which  is  about  the  size  of  the 
Common  Crane,  is  conspicuous : 
its  head  is  ornamented  with  a 
fine  crest,  composed  of  a  sort 
of  feathers,  each  of  which  is 
barbed,  or  bristled,  in  a  singular 
• :  manner,  throughout  its  whole 
}f^_  extent.  The  plumage  of  this 
-  Crane  (Fig.  143)  is  of  a  dark 
JSP  greenish  gray.  It  is  a  native 
of  Africa,  and  the  Cape  de  Verd 
Islands.  Cranes  were  formerly  found  in  this  country;  but  they 
have  now  almost  entirely  abandoned  it.  They  are  migratory;  and 
in  winter,  quit  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  for  more 
southern  and  warmer  countries.  They  are  very  easily  tamed,  and 
have  been  known  to  attain  a  great  age  in  a  domesticated  state. 
A  singular  instance  of  the  attachment  of  a  Brown  Crane  to  its 
companion,  has  been  lately  recorded,  as  well  as  we  can  recollect, 
by  the  talented  Mrs.  Bowdich.  One  of  a  pair,  which  were  kept 
by  a  gentleman  in  this  country,  having  died,  the  other  was,  appa- 
rently, so  affected  by  the  loss  of  its  fellow-prisoner,  that  but  little 
hope  was  entertained  of  its  surviving.  At  length,  and  as  a  forlorn 
hope,  a  large  looking-glass  was  placed  in  the  Aviary:  the  bird  no 
sooner  beheld  the  reflection  of  his  own  image,  than, — probably  con- 
ceiving it  to  be  his  companion, — he  smoothed  his  ruffled  plumes, 
assumed  an  air  of  joy,  regained  his  strength,  and  lived  some  years 
after,  perfectly  contented,  and  passing  much  of  his  time  before  the 
glass.  Bartram  gives  a  singular  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  Savannah  Cranes  make  their  nests.  They  collect  a  quantity 
of  dry  grass  on  a  little  hillock,  which  is  nearly  as  high  as  their 
bodies;  and  in  incubating,  they  stand  with  one  leg  on  each  side 
of  the  hillock,  so  that  the  breast  only  touches  the  eggs. 

The  Bittern   is  stouter  than  the  Common  Heron,  but  not  quite 
so  large  as  that  bird :  the  greater  part  of  its  plumage  is  marked 


258  THE     AVIARY. 

with  a  multitude  of  small  streaks  and  specks  of  black,  on  a  rust- 
coloured  ground.  The  beak  is  very  strong  at  the  base,  and  tapers 
gradually  to  a  very  sharp  point;  the  mandibles  open  behind  the 
eyes ;  the  top  of  the  head  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  crest  of  long 
feathers,  which  the  bird  can  raise  at  will;  the  legs  are  of  a  palish 
green  colour ;  the  claws  are  long  and  sharp,  and  the  middle  one 
serrated.  Bitterns,  in  the  manner  of  taking  their  food,  and  in 
their  general  habits,  very  much  resemble  the  Common  Heron; 
but  they  are  by  no  means  deficient  in  courage.  When  attacked 
by  a  bird  of  prey,  the  Bittern  bravely  defends  itself,  and  fre- 
quently repulses  its  assailant;  and  if  wounded,  so  as  to  be  inca- 
pable of  flying,  it  will  not  scruple  to  attack  the  sportsman,  and 
often  inflicts  rather  severe  wounds  with  its  keen  and  powerful  bill. 
The  Bittern  usually  constructs  its  nest  of  rushes  and  withered 
water-plants,  among  the  sedges 
which  clothe  the  banks  of 
pools.  It  is  said,  that  the  hen 
feeds  the  young  ones  for  three 
days  in  the  nest,  and  then  leads 
them  forth  in  quest  of  food. 
The  Bittern  is  remarkable  for 
'  uttering  a  very  peculiar,  coarse, 
hollow  note,  at  certain  times, 
;  which  may  be  heard  at  a  great 
-distance.  The  Great  American 
Bittern,  it  is  said,  has  the  pro- 
perty of  emitting  a  light  from 
its  breast,  which  illuminates 
the  water,  and  either  attracts,  or  enables  the  bird  to  discover  its 
prey;  and  it  is  conjectured,  that  birds  of  the  same  genus,  in 
this  country,  also  produce  light,  for  the  same  purpose,  from  a 
large  space  on  the  breast,  which  is  without  feathers,  but  covered 
with  a  soft,  greasy  down.  (Fig.  144,  the  Bittern.) 

The  largest  bird  of  this  genus  ie  a  native  of  the  East  Indies: 
it  measures  seven  feet  and  a  half  from  the  top  of  the  beak  to  the 
claws ;  it  has  a  very  large  beak,  and  a  drooping  crop  of  consider- 
able dimensions.  Latham  states,  that  a  young  bird  of  this  species, 
about  five  feet  in  height,  was  brought  up  tame,  and  presented  to 
the  chief  of  the  Bananas,  where  Mr.  Smeathman  lived,  and  being 
accustomed  to  be  fed  in  the  great  hall,  soon  became  familiar; — duly 
attending  that  place  at  dinner-time,  and  placing  itself  behind  its 
master's  chair,  frequently  before  any  of  the  guests  entered.  The 


THE    AVIARY. 


259 


servants  were  obliged  to  watch  it  narrowly,  and  to  defend  the 
provisions  with  switches  in  their  hands ;  but,  notwithstanding  this, 
it  would  frequently  snatch  off  something  or  other;  and  was  known 
once  to  have  purloined  a  whole  boiled  fowl,  which  it  swallowed  in 
an  instant.  Its  courage  is  riot  equal  to  its  voracity ;  for  a  child  of 
eight  or  ten  years  old  soon  puts  it  to  flight  with  a  switch;  though, 
at  first,  it  seems  to  stand  upon  its  defence,  by  threatening,  with 
its  enormous  bill  widely  extended,  and  crying  out  with  a  loud 
hoarse  voice,  like  a  bear  or  a  tiger.  It  is  an  enemy  to  small  quad- 
rupeds, as  well  as  birds  and  reptiles,  and  destroys  fowls  and 
chickens,  though  it  dare  not  attack  a  hen,  with  her  young,  openly: 
it  preys  also  on  rats,  young  kittens,  and  the  like,  and  has  been 
known  to  swallow  a  cat  whole : 
a  bone  of  a  shin  of  beef  being 
broken  asunder,  serves  it  but  for 
two  morsels.  This  bird  used  to 
fly  about  the  island,  and  roost 
very  high  among  the  silk  cotton 
trees;  from  whence,  at  two  or 
three  miles  distance,  it  could 
espy  the  dinner  carrying  across 
the  yard ;  when,  darting  from  its 
station,  it  would  enter  promis- 
cuously with  the  women  who 
carried  in  the  dishes.  When 
sitting,  it  was  observed  to  rest 
itself  on  the  whole  of  the  hind 
part  of  the  leg.  It  sometimes 
stood  near,  for  half  an  hour  after  dinner,  with  the  head  turning 
alternately,  as  if  listening  to  the  conversation.  (Fig.  145,  the 
Adjutant,  or  Giant  Crane.) 

Boat-bill: — The  form  of  the  beak  in  birds  of  this  genus  is 
very  peculiar:  it  is  broad,  depressed,  and 
sharp  at  the  point  (Fig.  146.)  The  Boat- 
bill  is  an  inhabitant  of  South  America:  it 
is  about  the  size  of  a  Crow ;  the  tail  and 
part  of  the  back  are  of  an  ash  colour ;  the 
breast,  and  all  the  under  parts  of  the  body 
are  white,  and  the  residue  of  the  plumage  is  black. 

Curlew  (Numenius): — The  beak  of  the  Curlew  is  long,  curved 
gradually  from  base  to  point,  and  blunt  at  the  end   (see  fig.  130, 
p.  253):  the  tongue  is  sharp-pointed  and  short:   the  legs  are  long, 
22* 


260 


THE    AVIARY. 


and  a  membrane  connects  the  toes  as  far  as  the  first  joint  (see 
fig.  131,  p.  253.)  Another  genus  of  birds  in  this  order,  Tantalus, 
has  nearly  the  same  characteristics :  it  is  supposed  to  have  con- 
tained that  celebrated  bird,  the  Ibis,  so  much  esteemed  by  the 
Egyptians,  for  destroying  reptiles,  &c. 

The  Curlew  (Fig.  147)  is  frequently  seen  in  winter,  on  the 
English  coasts,  and  on  extensive  marshy  plains  during  the  warm 

months.  Its  food  consists 
of  worms  and  insects,  which 
it  extracts  with  its  long  bill, 
from  among  moss  and  in- 
.  terwoven  water-plants,  &c. 
^during  its  inland  residence: 
Awhile  it  remains  on  the  sea- 
r shore,  it  subsists  partly  on 
fish.  The  hen  lays  four 
five  eggs  of  a  greenish 
hue,  spotted  with  brown:  her  nest  is  made  on  the  ground,  of 
dry  rushes,  and  other  withered  vegetable  substances.  Curlews 
differ  much  in  size,  as  well  as  plumage :  they  generally  measure 
about  two  feet  in  length,  and  are  of  a  brown  colour,  varied  with 
darker  markings  on  the  back,  wings,  &c.  and  white  on  the  lower 
parts  of  the  body.  Some  of  the  foreign  species  of  this  genus  are 
very  beautiful. 

Snipe  (Scolopax) : — The  bill  in  this  genus  is  long,  flexible, 
straight,  and  rather  blunt  at  the  point;    the  tongue  is  slender  and 
148         ^ax^  149  „         pointed ;  the  toes  are 

divided  to  the  origin, 
or  have  a  very  slight 
membranous  connex- 
ion only  :  the  hinder  one  is  particularly  small.  (Figs.  148  and  149, 
beak  and  foot  of  the  Woodcock.) 

The  Common  Snipe  generally  weighs  about  four  ounces:  the 
plumage  is  diversified  with  various  shades  of  brown;  the  bill  is 
three  inches  long,  and  of  a  pale  brown,  or  greenish  yellow  colour; 
the  legs  are  of  a  faint  green.  The  Snipe  frequents  low,  moist 
places,  in  the  mud  of  which  it  is  almost  constantly  diving  its  bill, 
in  quest  of  the  small  worms  and  insects  on  which  it  feeds.  Snipes 
are  migratory  birds;  but  it  is  well  known  that  they  frequently 
remain  throughout  the  year  and  breed  in  this  country.  Their 
nests  are  made  on  the  ground,  by  the  side  of  a  clump  of  wood  or 
a  broken  bank:  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed,  are 


THE    AVIARY.  261 

nearly  the  same  as  those  used  by  the  Curlew  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  hen  lays  four  or  five  oblong  eggs  of  a  green  colour,  with 
rusty  spots ;  the  eggs,  it  is  said,  are  all  placed  with  their  smaller 
ends  in  the  middle  of  the  nest.  The  Common  Snipe  is  provin- 
cially  termed  the  Heather-bleater,  doubtless  on  account  of  the 
singular  noise  which  it  occasionally  makes.  Montague  states,  in 
his  Ornithological  Dictionary,  that  in  the  breeding  season  the 
Snipe  changes  his  note  entirely  from  that  in  the  winter:  the 
male  will  keep  on  the  wing  for  nearly  an  hour  together,  mounting 
like  a  Lark,  uttering  a  shrill  piping  noise;  then  descend  with 
great  velocity,  making  a  bleating  sound,  not  unlike  an  old  goat ; 
which  is  repeated  alternately  round  the  spot  possessed  by  the 
female,  especially  while  she  is  sitting  in  her  nest. 

The  Woodcock  (Fig.  150)  is  about  thrice  the  size  of  the  Common 
Snipe;  to  which  bird  it  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  in  its 
plumage  and  habits.  Although 
a  migratory  bird,  the  Wood- 
cock, like  the  Snipe,  frequently 
breeds  in  this  country.  The 
nest  is  made  of  the  same  ma- 
terials as  that  of  the  Common 
Snipe,  and  it  is  usually  built 
in  similar  situations  to  those 
chosen  by  the  latter  bird.  The 
eggs  are  usually  four  or  five  in  number,  and  marked  with  dusky 
spots  on  a  rusty  gray  or  ashy  ground.  The  shape  of  the  Wood- 
cock's head  is  remarkable ;  the  eyes  are  placed  near  the  crown ;  the 
ears  are  in  a  line  with  the  mouth  and  lie  very  forward:  the  beak  is 
about  three  inches  in  length ;  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible  pro- 
jects over  the  lower,  and  terminates  in  a  knob,  which,  being 
exceedingly  susceptible,  enables  the  bird  to  discover  the  small 
worms,  on  which  it  principally  subsists,  in  the  soft,  marshy  grounds, 
where,  like  the  Snipe,  it  is  generally  digging  and  nibbling.  Wood- 
cocks arrive  in  this  country,  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  singly 
or  in  pairs,  about  the  latter  end  of  October,  and  during  the  month 
of  November;  they  depart  again  in  April.  They  are  supposed 
to  land  during  the  night  only;  and,  after  resting  for  a  day  near 
the  sea,  they  proceed  inland  towards  those  haunts  which  they 
frequented  during  the  preceding  seasons.  These  birds  are  much 
sought  after  by  the  sportsman.  Numbers  of  them  are  also  taken 
by  traps,  springes,  &c.  towards  which  they  are  directed  by  means 
of  little  avenues,  placed  in  their  usual  paths:  into  these  they 


262  THE     AVIARY. 

enter  without  suspicion,  as  they  will  rather  follow  a  path,  how- 
ever tortuous,  than  leap  over  any  obstacles,  when  in  quest  of 
food.  This  singular  habit  renders  them  an  easy  prey  to  the  noose 
or  the  net  of  the  fowler;  while  their  short,  rapid,  and  irregular 
flight  secures  them,  in  many  cases,  from  falling  before  the  gun  of 
the  sportsman. 

Sandpiper  (Tringa) : — The  beaks  and  feet  of  the  Sandpipers 
very  nearly  resemble  those  of  the  preceding  genus.  Their  haunts 
and  habits  are  also  similar  to  those  of  the  Snipes.  Thirty-seven 
species,  and  nine  varieties  of  this  genus  have  been  enumerated 
by  Latham:  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  a  description  of  the 
Ruff  only. 

Ruffs  differ  so  materially  in  plumage,  that  Buffon  says,  out  of 
a  hundred  of  them  compared  together  by  Klien,  only  two  were 
found  alike.  The  upper  parts  of  their  plumage  may,  however, 
be  described  as  a  mixture  of  dark-reddish  ash  and  rusty  brown, 
spotted  and  barred  with  black  and  white;  the  under  parts  are 
white.  The  length  of  the  bird  is  about  a  foot ;  the  bill  is  of  a 
ruddy  yellow  near  the  base,  and 
black  at  the  tip;  the  front  of  the 
head  is  studded  with  tubercles;  and 
a  spreading  ruff  of  feathers,  beau- 
tifully variegated,  and  of  different 
hues  in  different  individuals,  springs 
from  the  neck.  At  two  years  of  age 
the  male  birds  acquire  their  ruffs, 
which  disappear  with  the  tubercles, 
after  the  moulting  season,  at  the 
end  of  June,  and  are  resumed  again  in  the  ensuing  spring.  (Fig.  151 , 
the  Ruff.) 

The  females  of  these  birds  are  called  Reeves.  They  build 
their  nests  in  dry  tufts  of  grass  or  weeds,  in  fens,  early  in  May: 
the  eggs  are  usually  four  in  number:  they  are  white,  marked  with 
rusty  spots.  Ruffs  are  migratory,  and  arrive  in  this  island,  from 
more  northern  countries,  in  the  spring:  shortly  after,  they  enter 
into  terrible  conflicts,  and  numbers  of  them  are  destroyed;  at  this 
time  they  are  easily  taken  in  nets,  &c.  Buffon  says,  that  they 
not  only  contend  with  each  other  in  single  rencounter,  but  ad- 
vance to  combat  in  marshalled  ranks. 

Plover  (Charadrius) : — The  birds  of  this  and  the  genus  Tringa, 
are  nearly  allied  to  each  other;  there  is  a  great  resemblance  in 
the  beak  and  feet,  except  that  most  of  the  Plovers  are  without  the 


THE    AVIARY. 


263 


hinder  toe  (Figs.  152  and  153,  beak  and  foot  of  the  Golden  Plover.) 
Bewick  has  arranged  several  of  the  Plovers  among  the  LAND  BIRDS, 
53  —  and  states,  that  they  may  be  consi- 
dered as  connecting  the  two  great 
divisions  of  the  class,  to  both  of  which 
they  are  in  some  degree  united ;  he 
is,  however,  content  to  suffer  the  Long-legged  Plover  to  remain 
among  the  WADERS.  This  bird  (Fig.  154)  is  very  rare  in  Great 
154  Britain.  According  to  Latham, 

it  is  common  in  Egypt,  being 
found  there,  in  the  marshes, 
in  October;  its  food  is  said  to 
consist  principally  of  flies.  It 
is  also  seen  on  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  in  the  East 
Indies;  and  frequently  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  America.  The  upper  parts  of  its  plumage  are  of 
a  deep  black,  and  the  breast,  &c.  of  a  pure  white ;  its  legs  are  red, 
weak,  and  of  a  most  extravagant  length:  the  base  of  the  middle 
toe  is  connected  to  the  outer  one  by  a  membrane.  Mr.  White 
says,  that  in  a  specimen  of  this  bird,  which  he  procured,  the  length 
of  the  legs  was  so  extraordinary,  that,  at  first  sight,  one  might 
have  supposed  the  shanks  to  have  been  fastened  on,  to  impose  on 
the  credulity  of  the  beholder. 

Oyster  -  catcher  (Hcematopus) : — The  Oyster  -  catcher  feeds 
principally  on  oysters;  for  opening  the  shells  of  which  its  bill  is 
so  exceedingly  well  formed,  that,  as  Derham  remarks,  it  seems 

to  have  been  framed  purely 
for  that  use  (Figs.  155  and 
156,  beak  and  foot  of  the 
Oyster-catcher.)  The  toes 
are  only  three  in  number; 
they  are  all  placed  forward,  and  united  by  a  membrane  as  far 
as  the  first  joint.  The  birds  of  this  genus  are  scattered  in  small 
numbers  over  almost  every  part  of  the  globe. 

The  Oyster-catcher  usually  weighs  from  fifteen  to  seventeen 
ounces:  its  plumage  is  black,  dark  brown,  and  white;  the  bill  is 
about  three  inches  long,  of  a  bright  scarlet  colour,  obtuse  at  the 
point,  and  compressed  on  the  eides.  Nature  has  not  only  endowed 
this  bird  with  a  beak  that  is  admirably  suited  for  its  office, — namely, 
that  of  extracting  oysters  from  their  shells,  and  detaching  limpets 
from  the  places  where  they  grow,  but  its  feet  are  also  excellently 


264 


THE    AVIARY. 


protected,  by  a  hard  scaly  skin,  from  the  sharp  points  and  edges 
of  the  shells  and  crags,  across  which  it  is  compelled  to  walk  in 
quest  of  its  food.  These  birds 
occasionally  take  the  water,  but 
float  rather  than  swim.  The  hen 
lays  four  or  five  eggs  with  black 
spots,  on  the  bare  ground,  behind 
a  little  mound  of  sand,  or  a  tuft 
of  grass.  It  is  said  that  she  in- 
cubates during  the  night  only, — 
leaving  the  eggs  exposed  to  the 
warmth  of  the  sun  during  the 
day.  (Fig.  157,  the  Oyster-catcher.) 

Jacana  (Parra) : — The  Jacana  is  distinguished  by  the  immo- 
derate length  of  the  claws,  which, 
in  some  species,  are  nearly  half 
as  long  as  the  body;  as  well  as 
by  a  sharp  horny  spine  at  the 
shoulder  of  each  wing,  and  a  scal- 
loped cere  without  feathers,  arising 
in  front  of  the  base  of  the  bill, 
which  is  of  a  moderate  length, 
andrather  obtuse.  (Figs.  158  and 
159,  the  beak  and  foot  of  the  Jacana.) 

The  Chestnut  Jacana  (Fig.  160)  is  about  the  size  of  a  Lapwing; 
out  its  legs  are  much  longer  than  those  of  that  bird.  The  head, 
neck,  and  all  the  under  parts  of  the  body 
are  black ;  the  back,  wings,  and  upper  part 
of  the  tail,  are  chestnut ;  the  greater  coverts 
are  green,  with  black  tips;  the  spurs  on 
the  wings  are  of  an  orange  colour ;  the  legs 
and  feet  are  bluish ;  the  claws  are  remark- 
ably long  and  sharp,  particularly  the  hinder 
ones ;  the  bill  is  yellow  at  the  point,  and 
red  at  the  base;  the  scallop,  which  is  red, 
covers  part  of  the  forehead,  but  does  not 
adhere  to  it.  These  birds  are  commonly 
seen  in  pairs :  they  frequent  marshes,  and 
are  exceedingly  shy.  Nature,  says  Buffon, 
has  armed  the  Jacana  for  war;  yet  we  know  not  any  foe  which  it 
combats.  Man  has,  however,  turned  its  powers  to  a  good  account. 
The  most  remarkable  bird  of  the  genus,  the  Faithful  Jacana,  is 


THE    AVIARY.  265 

said  to  be  easily  tamed;  and  when  domesticated,  is  frequently 
made  the  guard  of  various  kinds  of  poultry,  which  are  committed 
to  its  care,  as  sheep  to  that  of  a  dog.  It  is  described  as  resolutely 
beating  off  birds  of  prey,  by  means  of  the  spurs  on  its  shoulders ; 
never  deserting  the  charge  committed  to  its  care,  but  going  out 
with  them  to  proper  situations  by  day,  and  very  regularly  bringing 
them  all  home  safe  at  night. 


WADERS,  WITH  PINNATED  FEET. 

The  birds  of  this  order  approach  nearer  to  those  with  webbed 
feet  than  the  WADERS  ;  the  toes  being  furnished  with  lateral  mem- 
branes. In  this  order  are  arranged  the  Coots,  the  Grebes,  and 
the  Phalaropes. 

Phalarope  (Phalaropus) : — The  body  and  legs  of  the  Phalarope 
resemble  those  of  the  Sandpiper:  the  bill  is  straight  and  slender; 
the  nostrils  are  minute;  and  scalloped  mem- 
branes are  attached  to  the  toes  (Figs.  161  and  162, 
beak  and  foot  of  Phalarope.)  There  are  several 
species  of  this  genus.  The  Gray  Phalarope  is  a 
very  pretty  bird,  principally  of  a  fine  lead  colour, 
pale  brown,  and  white.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  and  migrates 
southward  in  the  winter:  it  is  but  rarely  met 
with  in  the  British  isles.  The  edges  of  the  membranes  on  the  toes 
are  finely  serrated,  as  well  as  scalloped. 

Coot  (Fulica): — In  this  genus  a  central  con- 
tinuation of  the  cere  covers  a  portion  of  the  front 
of  the  head;  the  mandibles  are  equal  in  length, 
strong,  thick,  and  rather  pointed;  the  wings  and 
tail  are  short ;  the  toes  are  long,  and  furnished 
with  broad  scalloped  membranes;  the  hinder 
toe  has  a  plain  membrane:  the  inner  toe  has 
two;  the  middle,  three;  and  the  outer  one  four 
scallops  (Figs.  163  and  164,  beak  and  foot  of 
the  Coot.) 

The  Coot  is  about  fifteen  inches  in  length ;  there  is  a  white 
spot  under  the  eye ;  the  remainder  of  the  plumage  is  black  on  the 
upper  parts,  and  grayish  on  the  breast,  &c.  The  thighs  are  placed 
far  behind:  they  are  bare  and  yellow  above  the  knees:  the  legs 
are  of  a  brownish  green,  and  sometimes  of  rather  a  lead  colour. 


266 


THE    AVIARY. 


The  Coot  swims  and  dives  exceedingly  well,  but  walks  with  con- 
siderable difficulty,  and  can  seldom  be  induced  to  rise  on  the 
wing.  It  is  frequently  met  with 
about  the  marshy  parts  of  this 
country.  The  hen  lays  from  ten 
to  fifteen  eggs,  of  a  pale  dull  brown 
colour,  with  specks  and  blotches 
of  a  darker  hue.  The  nest  of  the 
Coot  is  built  in  a  tuft  of  rushes, 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water; 
and  should  the  winds  drive  it  from 
its  moorings,  the  mother-bird  still 
broods  over  her  eggs,  or  nestles  her  little  ones,  and  endeavours, 
by  means  of  her  feet,  to  direct  it  into  another  harbour  (Fig.  165, 
the  Coot.) 

Grebe  (Podiceps ; — Colymbus,  LINN.)  : — The  Grebes  are  most 
expert  swimmers  and  divers:  "at  sea,  they  seem  to  sport  with  the 
waves,  through  which  they  dart  with  the  greatest  ease;  and,  in 
swimming,  glide  along,  as  it  were,  without  any  apparent  effort, 
upon  the  surface,  with  wonderful  velocity."  The  principal  cha- 
racteristics of  the  genus  are, — a  long,  straight,  sharp-pointed  bill ; 
no  tail;  legs  placed  far  back,  thin,  and  doubly- 
serrated  behind;  and  toes  furnished  with  mem- 
branes (Figs.  166  and  167,  beak  and  foot  of 
the  Grebe.)  They  are  capable  of  rising  from 
the  water,  but  cannot  take  wing  from  land, 
except  it  be  from  an  eminence ;  they  walk  with 
the  body  upright,  and  are  liable  to  fall  forward 
if  urged  beyond  their  usual  slow  pace.  They 
frequent  inland  waters  during  the  summer 
months;  and  retire  to  the  sea  when  the  brooks 
and  pools  are  frozen.  They  build  their  nests  either  in  holes  of  rocks 
or  among  the  reeds  in  marshy  places,  and  lay  two  or  three  eggs. 
The  Eared  Dobchick,  or  Eared  Grebe  (Fig.  168)  is  about 
twelve  inches  in  length,  and 
weighs  nearly  twenty  ounces. 
The  upper  parts  of  the  plum- 
age are  black,  the  under  white, 
and  the  sides  rust-coloured; 
the  tips  of  the  mandibles  are 
white;  the  base  of  the  upper 
one  red,  and  the  remainder  of  both  black :  the  head  is  covered 


THE     AVIARY. 


267 


with  thick  black  plumage,  except  that  large  tufts  of  an  orange 
colour  rise  behind  the  eyes,  and  spreading  out  in  a  backward 
direction,  nearly  meet  behind  the  head  at  their  tops.  The  hen 
lays  three  or  four  white  eggs;  the  nest  is  built  of  dry  weeds,  and 
placed  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  among  flags  and  rushes. 


WEB-FOOTED. 

The  web-footed  birds  principally  live  in  the  water.  Their 
nests  are  made  on  the  ground,  in  holes,  or  among  rushes;  and,  in 
some  cases,  upon  the  shelves,  or  in  the  cran- 
nies of  rocks,  near  the  shore.  Some  of  them 
lay  only  one  egg  each,  and  others  from  fifteen 
to  twenty.  Their  food  consists  offish,  insects, 
worms,  water-plants,  &c.  The  bills  of  many 
of  them  are  of  singular  forms ;  but  in  a  great 
number  the  beak  is  broad,  dilated,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  kind  of  nail  at  the  tip.  The  legs 
are  short  and  strong,  and  the  feet  widely 
webbed.  (Figs.  169  and  170,  beak  and  foot  of  the  Mallard;  a,  the 
lower  mandible.) 

Avoset  (Recurvirostra): — The  bill,  in  birds  of  this  genus,  is 

of  a  very  singular  form ; 
it  is  thin,  depressed,  and 
both  mandibles  are  bent 
upwards;   the  legs    are 
long;  the  feet  are  palmated,  with  deep  indentations  in  the  web,  from 
the  nails  backward;    the  hinder  toe   is  placed  high   on  the  leg 
173  (Figs.  171  and  172.)     The 

Avoset  (Fig.  173)  known  in 
this  country,  weighs  about 
thirteen  ounces :  its  plumage  is 
white,  variegated  with  black 
patches,  the  form  and  situ- 
ation of  which  vary  in  differ- 
ent individuals.  The  thighs 
and  legs  are  of  a  pale  blue 
colour;  the  bill  is  black,  and 
between  three  and  four  inches  long.  In  some  parts  of  England, 
Avosets  are  common  about  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  the  winter: 
during  the  breeding  season  they  retire  to  the  fens.  The  female, 
when  disturbed  from  her  nest,  is  said  to  counterfeit  lameness. 
23 


268 


THE  AVIARY. 


She  lays  two  eggs  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's,  of  an  ashy  gray 
colour,  marked  with  dark  brown  irregular  spots.  The  Avoset  is 
a  very  lively  and  active  bird:  it  feeds  on  worms,  insects,  &c.  which 
it  scoops  out  of  the  mud  by  means  of  its  peculiarly-shaped  bill. 

Flamingo  (Phoenicopterus) : — This  genus  is  distinguished  by  a 
very  broad  beak,  suddenly  depressed  about  the  middle,  and  ser- 
rated at  the  edges ;  the  legs  are  long, 
and  the  feet  webbed  (Figs.  174  and 
175.)  Although  the  body  of  the  Fla- 
mingo is  scarcely  equal  in  size  to  that 
of  a  Swan,  the  neck  is  nearly  three 
feet,  and  the  legs  two  feet  eight  to 
two  feet  ten  inches,  in  length.  These 
birds  wade  breast-deep  in  water,  oc- 
casionally, but  are  not  accounted 
swimmers.  The  Red  Flamingo,  when 
full  grown,  is  of  a  vivid  scarlet  colour, 
except  at  the  tips  of  the  wings,  which  are  black.  It  frequents  the 
sea-coasts  of  Africa  and  South  America,  and  feeds  on  fish,  water- 
insects,  and  vegetables.  The  nest  of  the  Flamingo  is  formed  of 
mud,  in  the  shape  of  a  truncated  cone, — the  top  being  hollowed 
so  as  to  admit  only  the  breast  of  the  bird:  it  is  usually  built  in  a 
marshy  pool,  and  raised  a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Albatross  (Diomedia) : — The  Albatross  is  a  very  large  and  fierce 
bird,  principally  found  near  capes  and  headlands    in  Africa  and 

America  j  but  its  wander- 
ings are  occasionally  so 
extensive,  that  it  is  seen 
in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  and  met  with  at 
greater  distances  from 
land  than  any  other  bird. 
The  bill  of  the  Albatross 
is  large,  hooked,  and  up- 
wards of  six  inches  in 
length;  die  toes  are  web- 
bed and  of  a  flesh  colour 
(Figs.  176  and  177,  beak  and  foot  of  Albatross.)  The  wings  fre- 
quently measure,  when  stretched  out,  nearly  ten  feet;  the  plumage 
on  the  top  of  the  head  is  of  a  brownish  tint;  the  back  is  dusky, 
with  brown  spots,  and  the  feathers  on  the  under  parts  white. 
The  Albatross  is  said  to  prey  on  small  water-fowl,  as  well  as  fish. 


THE    AVIARY. 


269 


Auk  (Alca) : — The  bill,  in  birds  of  the  Auk  kind,  is  particu- 
larly strong,  thick,  compressed  at  the  sides,  and  convex  (Figs.  178 
and  179,  beaks  of  the  Razor-bill 
and  Puffin) :  the  nostrils  are  linear, 
and  placed  parallel  to  the  edge  of 
the  bill ;  the  toes  are  three  in  num- 
ber, webbed,  and  all  pointing  for- 
ward (Fig.  180,  foot  of  Razor-bill.) 
The  Puffin,  or  Coulterneb,  says 
Evans,  is  the  most  extraordinary 
bird  that  frequents  the  coast  of 
Britain:  its  body  is  not  larger 

than  a  Pigeon's,  but  its  bill  is  of  an  uncommon  size  and  shape:  it  is 
flat,  with  the  edge  upwards,  and  said  to  resemble  the  coulter  of  a 
plough;  its  legs  are  placed  so  far  back,  that  it  moves  awkwardly, 
and  with  great  difficulty  gets  upon  the  wing.  During  the  winter 
months,  these  birds  frequent  the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  About 
May  they  begin  to  arrive  on  our  coasts:  a  few  days  after  their 
arrival,  they  prepare  for  breeding,  by  burrowing  in  the  ground, 
in  a  winding  direction,  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten  feet;  and  if 
they  happen  to  get  under  a  large  stone,  they  consider  themselves 
still  more  secure :  in  this  fortified  retreat  the  female  lays  one  egg, 
relying  upon  its  courage  and  strength  of  bill,  with  which  it  bites 
terribly,  to  ward  off  the  attempts  of  its  enemies,  the  Falcons. 

The  Great  Auk,  or  Northern  Penguin  (Fig.  181)  is  consider- 
ably larger  than  the  Puffin:  like 
that  bird,  the  hen  lays  only  one 
egg  of  an  immense  size,  streaked 
and  spotted  with  purple  arid  rust 
colour;  it  does  not  burrow  like  the 
Puffin,  but  lays  upon  a  rocky  ledge, 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  sea.  The 
Razor-bill,  also,  lays  her  single 
large  egg  upon  the  bare  rock,  upon 
places  which  are  so  smooth,  that  it 
is  wonderful  the  wind,  or  even  the 
touch  of  the  bird,  does  not  roll 
it  off:  it  has  been  said,  that  if  it 
be  moved  by  the  human  hand, 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  replace 
it  in  its  previous  steady  position.  Hence,  authors  have  been  led 
to  suppose,  that  the  egg,  when  first  laid,  is  fixed  to  the  rock 


270  THE  AVIARY. 

by  the  glutinous  limy  substance  which  covers  the  shell,  and 
hardens  so  as  to  keep  it  firmly  in  the  place  where  it  is  first  depo- 
sited, until  the  young  one  is  hatched.  Razor-bills  migrate  in  im- 
mense numbers,  during  the  breeding  season,  to  various  parts  of  the 
coast  round  the  British  islands:  in  some  places  thousands  of  them 
may  be  seen  on  rocks  overhanging  the  sea,  sitting  on  the  ledges, 
in  regular  rows,  and  tier  above  tier,  in  the  act  of  incubation ; — each 
bird  knowing  her  own  egg  among  the  multitudes  by  which  it  is 
surrounded,  and  hatching  it  without  molesting  or  being  molested 
by  her  neighbours. 

Diver  (Colymbus): — Several  species  of  this  genus  frequent  the 
Bhores  of  these  islands.  The  bill  is  straight  and  sharp-pointed ; 
the  edges  of  each  mandible  bend  in- 
wards: the  upper  is  longer  than  the 
lower  one ;  the  tongue  is  serrated,  and 
the  nostrils  linear :  the  legs  are  thin  and 
placed  very  much  backward;  the  feet 
are  webbed ;  the  toes  are  four  in  number, 
the  exterior  one  is  longer  than  the  others 
(Figs.  182  and  183,  beak  and  foot  of  the 
Diver.)  The  Imber,  or  Immer  Diver,  is 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  world :  it  is  nearly  three  feet  in  length ; 
of  a  dusky  brown  or  ash  colour  on  the  upper  parts,  and  white  on 
the  breast,  &c.  It  is  a  most  expert  diver,  and  (according  to  Buffon) 
swims  under  water  to  the  distance  of  an  hundred  paces,  without 
ascending  to  take  breath:  a  portion  of  air,  included  in  its  dilated 
windpipe,  supplying  its  respiration  during  this  interval.  Latham 
states,  that  it  is  sometimes  taken,  twenty  yards  under  water,  with 
a  net,  or  an  iron  hook  baited  with  fish.  The  latter  author  informs 
us,  that  the  Imber  makes  its  nest  among  reeds  and  flags,  and, 
like  the  Grebe,  places  it  on  the  water. 

Tern  (Sterna): — The  beak,  in  birds  of  the  Tern  genus,  is 
straight  and  pointed ;  the  nostrils  are  linear ;  the  tail  is  forked ; 
and  the  feet  are  furnished  with  scalloped 
webs.  (Figs.  184  and  185,  beak  and  foot  of 
Tern.)  The  Terns,  or  Sea  Swallows,  are 
remarkably  nimble  birds:  they  remain  for 
a  long  time  on  the  wing,  catching  numbers 
of  insects  which  skim  over  the  water,  in  their 
flight,  and  occasionally  darting,  with  astonish- 
ing velocity,  upon  such  small  fish  as  they  perceive  swimming  near 
its  surface.  They  are  seen  in  large  flocks  near  the  sea-shore, 


THE    AVIARY. 


271 


and  at  the  mouths  of  great  rivers,  during  the  breeding  season. 
Some  of  the  species  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  bare  rock,  like  the 
Great  Auks  and  Razor-bills ;  others  prefer  holes  in  sand,  or  banks ; 
and  a  few  make  their  nests  among  the  reeds  and  flags  of  marshy 
places. 

The  Common  Tern  (Fig.  186)  is  frequently  met  with  about 
the  English  coasts,  and  also  on  the  banks  of  rivers  near  the  sea, 
in  this  country.  It  measures  fourteen  inches  in  length;  the  bill 

is  of  a  roseate  colour ;  the  legs 
and  feet  are  also  red ;  the  top  of 
the  head  is  black ;  the  plumage 
on  the  upper  parts  of  the  body 
is  ashy:  that  of  the  breast,  &c. 
is  white.  The  eggs  of  the  Com- 
nion  Tern,— which,  it  is  said, 
die  bird  only  covers  at  night, 
or  while  it  rams  during  the  day, — are  spotted  with  black  at  the 
larger  end,  on  a  dusky  olive  ground.  The  nest  is  formed  among 
grass,  reeds,  or  such  other  tall,  coarse  weeds  as  are  found  near  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  or  on  the  banks  of  lakes. 

Gull  (Larus) : — The  birds  of  this  genus  are  widely  dispersed ; 
and,  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  assemble  on  the  sea-coast,  and 
near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  in  prodigious  numbers:  they  are  very 
voracious,  and  devour,  not  only  fish,  but  all  sorts  of  putrid  sub- 
stances, slugs,  snails,  worms,  &c.  for  which  they  often  travel  far 
inland.  They  are  cowardly  and  cruel  in  disposition,  and  will 
attack  and  devour  even  any  of  their  com- 
pan  ions  that  happen  to  get  wounded.  The 
plumage  of  these  birds  varies  materially, 
according  to  their  age,  so  that  some  con- 
fusion exists  among  naturalists,  as  to  the 
various  species  (Fig.  3,  page  186,  the  Black- 
toed  Gull.)  Their  bills  are  strong,  straight, 
and  rather  hooked  at  the  top ;  the  nostrils 
are  oblong,  and  situated  in  the  middle  of 
the  upper  mandible.  The  three  forward 
toes  are  webbed  together :  the  hinder  one  is  very  small,  and  de- 
tached (Figs.  187  and  188,  beak  and  foot  of  Gull.) 

Petrel  (Procellaria) : — This  is  a  very  interesting  genus  of  birds. 
The  Petrels  have  been  properly  described  as  the  adventurous  in- 
habitants of  the  ocean; — sporting  in  the  tempest,  and  flying  or 
23* 


272  THE   AVIARY. 

swimming,  with  apparent  delight,  among  the  billows,  they  are  met 
with  in  all  latitudes,  by  mariners;    but  are  scarcely  ever  seen  on 
189  shore,  except  during  the  breeding  season.     The 

bill,  in  the  birds  of  this  genus,  is  hooked  at  the 
end,  but  straight  towards  the  base ;  the  legs  are 
destitute  of  plumage  above  the  knees ;  the  nos- 
trils are  contained  in  one  and  sometimes  two 
V  tubes;  the  foot  is  furnished  with  three  toes, 
webbed,  and  all  pointing  forward,  and  with  a  spur 
behind  (Figs.  189  and  190,  beak  and  foot  of  the 
Petrel.)  The  Stormy  Petrels  are  the  birds  which  seamen  term 
Mother  Gary's  Chickens.  So  great  is  their  agility,  that  they  seem 
to  run  along  the  surface  of  the  sea,  rather  than  swim  or  fly:  they 
are,  probably,  the  smallest  of  all  this  order  of  birds,  being  scarcely 
more  than  six  inches  in  length.  They  dive  and  fly,  as  well  as 
swim,  with  great  rapidity,  and  seem  to  possess  the  power  of  fore- 
seeing a  storm ;  long  before  any  symptoms  of  its  approach  can 
be  discerned  by  the  most  experienced  seaman,  they  frequently 
approach,  in  numbers,  towards  a  ship,  and  shelter  themselves  in 
its  wake.  The  Fulmar,  which  is  another  bird  of  this  genus,  is 
also  stated,  by  Pennant,  to  be  a  certain  prognosticator  of  the 
change  of  wind;  for  if  it  come  to  land,  no  west  wind  is  expected 
for  some  time ;  and  the  contrary,  if  it  keep  at  sea.  The  food  of 
the  Petrels  consists  of  such  gross  and  putrid  substances  as  float  in 
the  water.  Flocks  of  Fulmars  will  follow  the  track  of  a  wounded 
whale,  to  prey  on  its  carcass  when  the  creature  is  no  longer  able 
to  sink;  and  it  is  even  said,  that  they  occasionally  perch  on  the 
backs  of  living  whales,  and  peck  out  pieces  of  their  flesh.  From 
their  gross  mode  of  feeding,  the  Petrels  are  remarkably  fat  and 
rancid.  When  attacked,  they  possess  the  power  of  ejecting  oil 
from  their  bills  on  their  adversaries.  The  Fulmar  supplies  the 
inhabitants  of  St.  Kilda,  and  some 
other  places,  with  oil  for  their 
lamps;  and  the  people  of  the 
Feroe  and  Orkney  Islands  con- 
vert the  little  Stormy  Petrel  into 
a  candle,  by  drawing  a  wick 
through  its  body.  The  Petrels 
lay  their  eggs  in  caverns  and  clefts  of  rocks,  near  the  sea ;  and  at 
a  very  early  period  entice  their  young  to  follow  them  over  the 
waters.  (Fig.  191,  the  Stormy  Petrel.) 


THE    AVIARY. 


273 


Merganser  (Mergus) : — In  this  genus  the  bill  is  slender,  round- 
ish, and  furnished  with  a  crooked  horny  tip;  the  edges  are  strongly 
serrated;  the  nostrils  are  almost  in  the 
middle  of  the  upper  mandible;  the  feet  are 
webbed;  the  legs  are  short,  and  the  toes 
long :  the  three  forward  ones  are  nearly  of 
an  equal  length.  (Figs.  192  and  193,  beak 
and  foot  of  the  Goosander.)  The  Hooded 
Merganser,  which,  according  to  Catesby, 
frequents  fresh  waters,  more  especially  mill- 
ponds,  in  Virginia  and  Carolina,  is  very 
remarkable  for  its  fine  tuft,  or  crown  of 
white  feathers,  tipped  with  black,  and  covered  at  their  base  by 
other  black  feathers  which  spring  from  the  top  of  the  head,  just 
above  the  eyes.  The  breast  and  lower  parts 
of  this  bird  are  white;  the  neck  and  back, 
black ;  the  quills  of  the  tail  and  wings,  brown : 
except  the  innermost  in  the  wings,  which  are 
black,  and  marked  with  a  white  streak.  The 
inner  toes  are  slightly  webbed  on  their  out- 
sides,  and  the  back  toes  on  their  lower  parts 
(Fig.  194,  the  Hooded  Merganser.)  The 
Goosander,  which,  like  the  other  birds  of 
this  genus,  is  an  excellent  diver,  and  remains 
for  a  considerable  time  under  water,  hath 
(says  Willoughby)  a  huge  bony  labyrinth  on 
the  windpipe,  just  above  the  divarications ; 
and  the  windpipe  hath  besides,  two  swellings-out,  one  above  the 
other,  each  resembling  a  powder-puff:  these,  it  is  probable,  contain 
a  supply  of  air,  which  the  bird  in- 
spires when  diving,  and  is  thus  en- 
abled to  remain  a  much  longer  time 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  pursuit  of  its  prey,  than  it 
possibly  could  if  its  windpipe  were  of  the  usual  construction 
(Fig.  195,  windpipe  of  the  Goosander.) 

Duck  (Anas) : — This  genus  comprises  a  great  number  of  very 
beautiful  species  of  birds;  many  of  which  are  inhabitants,  and 
several  others,  visitants  of  these  islands.  A  few  of  them  have 
been  domesticated,  and  are  exceedingly  useful  to  man,  on  account 
of  the  excellent  flavour  of  their  flesh;  others,  equally  delicious, 
are  sent  to  market  in  immense  quantities,  during  the  winter  season, 
by  fowlers,  who  catch  them  by  means  of  snares,  decoys,  &c.  This 


274 


THE    AVIARY. 


genus  is  distinguished  by  having  a  broad,  flattish  bill,  with  the 
tongue  sharply  fringed,  the  edges  of  the  mandibles  serrated,  and 
the  end  of  the  bill  frequently  fur- 
nished with  a  nail;  the  feet  are 
webbed,  and  the  middle  toe  is  the 
longest.  (Figs.  196,  197,  198,  the 
beaks  of  the  Wild  Swan,  Sheldrake, 
and  Shoveller  Duck ;  Fig.  199,  foot 
of  the  Swan;  and,  a,  flat  view  of 
the  Sheldrake's  upper  mandible.) 
The  Wild  Swan  is  endowed  with  a 
fine  form,  to  which  it  is  enabled  to 
impart  the  most  graceful  motion, 
and  possesses  plumage  of  the  finest 
white  imaginable.  Wild  Swans  in- 
habit the  northern  parts  of  the 
world,  but  migrate  southward  when 
the  weather  threatens  to  become 
unusually  severe.  They  are  also  said  to  assemble,  in  immense 
multitudes,  on  the  lakes,  at  the  setting  in  of  the  frosty  season, 
and,  by  constant  motion,  and  continually  beating  the  water  with 
their  wings,  prevent  such  parts  as  they  prefer,  or  which  abound 
with  food,  from  freezing.  The  food  of  the  Wild  Swan  consists  of 
seeds  and  roots  of  plants,  insects,  and  fish.  The  female  builds  a 
nest  of  water-weeds,  and  usually  lays  six  or  eight  white  eggs. 
Our  reader  has,  doubtless,  heard  of  the  supposed  musical  voice  of 
the  dying  Swan:  an  error  which  was  so  generally  adopted  by  the 
ancients,  that  a  Swan  became  symbolical  of  poetry.  The  truth  is, 
that  the  Wild  Swan  emits  only  a  harsh  and  unpleasing  sound: 
and  the  voice  of  the  Tame  Swan  is  altogether  destitute  of  power 
or  sweetness. 

The  Tame  Swan  is  larger,  and   of  a  stouter  form  than  the 
wild  species;   it  has  a  reddish,  or  orange-coloured  beak,  with  a 

large  black  knob  on  the 
base  of  the  upper  man- 
dible; the  Wild  Swan's 
beak  is  black,  and  its  cere 
yellow.  But  the  greatest 
distinction  is  in  the  in- 
ternal organization:  the 
windpipe  of  the  Tame  Swan  is  simple  in  its  form  (Fig.  200) :  that 
of  the  Wild  Swan  enters  into  a  cavity  prepared  for  its  reception 


THE    AVIARY. 


275 


in  the  breast-bone,  and  is  doubled  therein,   before  it  enters  the 
lungs  (Fig.  201) :   this,  it  is  said,  enables  the  bird  to  utter  its 

singular,  harsh,  and 
powerful  note.  The 
plumage  of  the  Tame 
Swan,  in  whiteness,  is 
equal  to  that  of  the 
wild  species.  Its  food 
consists  of  fish  and 
water-plants.  The  female  makes  her  nest  in  the  weeds  of  some 
islet,  or  the  bank  of  the  water  on  which  she  is  kept :  she  lays  from 
six  to  eight  white  eggs;  and  the  young,  which  are  called  cygnets, 
are  hatched  in  six  weeks,  or  (as  some  writers  say)  two  months. 
The  cygnets  are  of  a  fine  brown  colour,  and  do  not  obtain  their 
perfect  plumage  for  the  first  year  of  their  lives.  In  former  times, 

cygnets  were  con- 
sidered as  dainties, 
and  the  Swan  was 
held  in  greater  esti- 
mation than  at  pre- 
sent: although  it  is 
still  a  felony  even 
to  steal  their  eggs 
from  the  islands  of 
an  open  river ;  and 
the  Swans  on  the 
Thames  are  under 
the  immediate  guardianship  of  the  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen  of 
London  (Fig.  202,  the  Tame  Swan.) 

Of  the  Goose  tribes  we  shall  select,  for  description  only,  the 
Barnacle  Goose,  and  the  Guinea, 
or  Swan  Goose.  Various  fabulous 
accounts  are  given  of  the  Barnacle 
Goose  (Fig.  203.)  Some  authors 
have  asserted,  that  the  birds  are 
produced  from  shells  (see  Anatifer, 
fig.  2,  page  89  of  this  work,)  which 
grow  on  the  bottoms  of  ships  that 
have  been  long  at  sea,  and  on 
wood  that  has  remained  for  a  con- 
siderable time  in  the  water:  others  have  stated,  very  gravely,  that 
the  Barnacle  Goose  grew  on  trees;  that  the  fruit  fell  into  the 


276 


THE    AVIARY. 


water,  when  ripe,  and  became  living  birds.  Barnacle  Geese  are 
found  in  this  country  in  hard  winters;  but  they  depart,  with  num- 
bers of  other  water-fowl,  at  the  approach  of  spring,  to  breed  in 
more  northern  latitudes. 

The  Guinea,  or  Swan  Goose,  is  remarkable  for  the  proud  and 
erect  carriage  of  its  body.  It  has  a  knob  of  considerable  size  on 
the  base  of  its  upper  mandible,  and, 
generally  speaking,  a  loose  bare  pouch 
under  its  throat.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
Swan  Geese  were  originally  brought 
from  Guinea:  they  are  now  scattered 
over  various  parts  of  the  world,  and 
kept,  by  the  curious,  with  other  do- 
mestic water-fowl,  which  they  very  much 
resemble  in  their  habits.  The  plumage 
of  the  Swan  Goose  varies,  like  that  of 
all  other  tarne  fowls;  but  the  general 
colour  of  the  feathers  is  brownish,  with 
light  edges  of  a  fainter  hue  on  the  under 
parts  than  on  the  back  and  wings 
(Fig.  204,  the  Swan  Goose.) 
The  Tame  Duck,  which  has  been  rendered  so  valuable  to  man 
by  domestication,  owes  its  origin  to  the  Mallard,  or  Wild  Drake, 
to  which,  notwithstanding  it  has  been  so  long  under  the  dominion 
of  man,  the  Tame  Duck  bears  a  great  resemblance  in  figure  and 
plumage.  The  Mallards  arrive  in  this  country  early  in  the  winter 
from  the  more  northern  climates, 
to  which  they  return  again  in 
^^  ^*  spring;  but  a  few  stragglers  re- 
main and  breed  among  the  fens 
and  marshes  of  these  islands ;  and 
the  broods  thus  produced,  inha- 
bit this  country  throughout  the 
year.  The  wild  species  pair  in 
the  breeding  season;  but  this  is 
not  the  case  with  the  domestic 
tribe.  The  female  makes  her  nest  among  reeds,  in  marshy  places, 
and  generally  lays  about  twelve  or  fourteen  eggs  of  a  pale  greenish 
colour  (Fig.  205,  the  Mallard.) 

The  Teal  is  a  very  beautiful  species  of  this  genus,  and,  during 
the  winter  months,  is  common  in  many  parts  of  England:  it 
retires  northward  in  the  spring,  but  has  occasionally  been  met  with 


THE  AVIARY. 


277 


in  this  country,  during  the  breeding  season,  surrounded  by  young 
ones.  The  nest  of  the  Teal  is  usually  concealed  in  a  hole,  beneath 
206  reeds  and  other  water  plants ;  it  is 

made  of  weeds  and  lined  with  fea- 
thers. The  femaje  lays  from  six  to 
twelve  eggs,  of  a  pale  white  colour, 
about  the  size  of  those  of  a  Pigeon. 
Like  the  Mallards,  and  other  birds 
of  this  genus,  the  Teal  feeds  on 
worms,  insects,  small  fish,  seeds,  and 
water-plants.  Its  flesh  is  considered 
to  be  of  excellent  flavour.  (Fig.  206,  the  Teal.) 

An  enlargement  of  the  windpipe,  rather  similar  to  that  of  the 
Goosander,  is  found  among  the  birds 
of  this  genus  (Figs.  207  and  208,  wind- 
pipes of  the  Mallard  and  Golden-eyed 
Duck.)  In  the  language  of  Willoughby, 
the  windpipe  of  the  Golden-eyed  Duck 
hath  a  labyrinth  at  the  divarications, 
and,  besides,  swells  out  above  into  a  puff-like  cavity. 

Pelican  (Pelicanus) : — In  this  genus,  which  includes  the  Cor- 
morant, Man-of-war  Bird,  Gannet,  &c.  as  well  as  the  Pelican,  the 
bill  is  hooked,  or  sloping  (Figs.  209,  210,  and  211,  beaks  of  the 
Pelican,  Cormorant,  and  Gannet) :  the  nostrils  are  often  scarcely 

distinguishable ;  the 
face  is  usually  bare, 
beneath  the  lower 
mandible  is  a  loose 
skin,  capable  of  very 
great  extension.  In 
some  of  the  species 
the  legs  are  placed 
very  far  backward, 
so  that  the  body 
appears  nearly  up- 
right; the  feet  are 
broad,  and  the  toes 
four  in  number;  all 
of  them  are  united 
by  a  web  (Fig.  212.)  The  Pelican  is  larger  than  the  Swan:  its 
shape  is  awkward;  its  movements  inelegant,  and  its  bill  im- 
mensely large.  Its  plumage  is  whitish,  dashed  with  yellow  on  the 


278 


THE    AVIARY. 


neck,  and  black  on  the  back.  Beneath  the  lower  mandible  there 
is  a  pouch,  which  can  be  distended  to  a  great  extent  (see  fig.  209) : 
this  serves  the  bird  as  a  receptacle  for  the  fish  which  it  takes  while 
on  the  wing ;  and,  on  its  return  to  shore,  it  dislodges  the  whole 
or  a  part  of  the  contents,  by  pressing  the  pouch  between  its  beak 
and  breast,  either  to  satisfy  its  own  appetite,  or  to  feed  its  young. 
From  this  circumstance  arose  the  fictitious  story  of  the  Pelican 
tearing  its  own  breast  to  nourish  its  nestlings.  This  bird  is  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  Old  World,  but  it  very  rarely  appears  in 
this  country.  The  Pelican  usually  builds  in  low,  waste,  marshy 
spots:  its  nest  is  formed  of  sedges,  and  lined  with  soft  grass:  the 
hen  lays  two  or  three  white  eggs. 


THE    TOILET. 


Discourse  we  now  of  silks  and  cloth  of  gold  ; — 
Of  robes  for  birth-days  and  high  festivals  ;— 
The  maiden's  simple,  unadorn'd  attire, 
And  of  the  modest  toilet  of  the  bride. 

5  UR  intention  in  the  treatment  of  this  delicate  and 
important  subject  is  by  no  means  to  attempt 
establishing  a  beau  ideal  of  dress;  because, 
even  in  the  event  of  our  being  successful, 
it  would  be  only  applicable  to  the  beau  ideal 
of  form  and  feature:  indeed,  it  appears  to 
us,  that  there  is  not  only  a  perfect  style  of 
costume,  adapted  to  the  various  classes  of  figure  and  face,  but 
for  almost  every  individual  of  which  they  are  composed.  To 
enter  into  a  description  of  these  styles,  would  be  to  embark  into 
an  hopeless  and  endless  task;  for,  to  be  complete,  they  must 
be  as  infinite  and  varied  as  nature  herself.  Our  limits  may  be 
much  more  advantageously  occupied  by  an  inquiry  into  general 
principles,  leaving  their  application,  in  most  cases,  to  the  young 
reader's  taste,  which,  however,  we  shall  endeavour  in  our  pro- 
gress, to  correct,  advance,  or  confirm. 

Although   the   Toilet  should   never  be  suffered  to  engross  so 
much  of  the  attention  as  to   interfere  with  the  higher  duties  of 
life,  yet,  as  a  young  lady's  dress,  however  simple,  is  considered 
24 


280 


THE    TOILET. 


a  criterion  of  her  taste,  it  is,  certainly,  worthy  of  her  attention. 
Her  chief  object,  in  this  respect,  should  be,  to  acquire  sufficient 
skill  and  good  taste  to  do  all  that  is  needful,  with  regard  to  die 
attire,  in  the  least  possible  period  of  time, — to  abbreviate  the 
labours  of  the  Toilet,  so  as  not  to  entrench  upon  hours  which 
should  be  devoted  to  the  useful  avocations  of  life,  or  the  embel- 
lishments of  the  mind.  It  will  be  a  laudable  ambition  in  her,  to 
curb  those  excesses  of  "  each  revolving  mode  "  with  which  she 
is  in  some  measure  obliged  to  comply;  to  aim  at  grace  and  deli- 
cacy rather  than  richness  of  dress;  to  sacrifice  exuberance  of 
ornament  (which  is  never  becoming  to  the  young)  whenever  it  is 
possible,  to  an  admirable  neatness,  equally  distant  from  the  prim 
and  the  negligent;  to  learn  the  valuable  art  of  imparting  a  charm 
to  the  most  simple  article  of  dress,  by  its 
proper  adjustment  to  the  person,  and  by  its 
harmonious  blending,  or  agreeably  contrasting 
with  the  other  portions  of  the  attire.  It  is  a 
truth,  which  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  a  higher  order  of  taste  is  often  displayed, 
and  a  better  effect  produced,  by  a  paucity  or 
total  absence  of  ornament,  than  by  the  most 
profuse  and  splendid  decorations.  The  youth- 
ful Isabella  of  Portugal  looks  better  in  that 
simple  head-dress  in  which  she  is  occasionally 
depicted  (fig.  1,)  than  in  the  nuptial  robes  which  she  wore  on  the 
day  of  her  marriage  with  Philip  the  Good. 

Fashion  demands  a  discreet,  but  not  a  servile  observance: 
much  judgment  may  be  shown  in  the  time,  as  well  as  the  mode, 
chosen  for  complying  with  her  caprices.  It  is  injudicious  to  adopt 
every  new  style  immediately  it  appears;  for  many  novelties  in 
dress  prove  unsuccessful, — being  abandoned  even  before  the  first 
faint  impression  they  produce  is  worn  off;  and  a  lady  can  scarcely 
look  much  more  absurd  than  in  a  departed  fashion,  which,  even 
during  its  brief  existence,  never  attained  a  moderate  share  of 
popularity.  The  wearer  must,  therefore,  at  once  relinquish  the 
dress,  or  submit  to  the  unpleasant  result  we  have  mentioned:  so 
that,  on  the  score  of  economy,  as  well  as  good  taste,  it  is  advisable 
not  to  be  too  eager  in  following  the  modes  which  whim  or  inge- 
nuity create  in  such  constant  succession.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
unwise  to  linger  so  long  as  to  suffer  "  Fashion's  ever-varying 
flower"  to  bud,  blossom,  and  nearly  "  waste  its  sweetness"  before 
we  gather  and  wear  it :  many  persons  are  guilty  of  this  error ; 


THE    TOILET.  281 

they  cautiously  abstain  from  a  too  early  adoption  of  novelty,  and 
fall  into  the  opposite  fault  of  becoming  its  proselytes  at  the  eleventh 
hour :  they  actually  disburse  as  much  in  dress  as  those  who  keep 
pace  with  the  march  of  mode,  and  are  always  some  months  behind 
those  who  are  about  them; — affording,  in  autumn,  a  post-obit  remi- 
niscence to  their  acquaintance,  of  the  fashions  which  were  popular 
in  the  preceding  spring.  Such  persons  labour  under  the  further 
disadvantage  of  falling  into  each  succeeding  mode  when  time  and 
circumstances  have  deformed  and  degraded  it  from  its  "  high  and 
palmy  state:"  they  do  not  copy  it  in  its  original  purity,  but  with 
all  the  deteriorating  additions  which  are  heaped  upon  it  subse- 
quently to  its  invention.  However  beautiful  it  may  be,  a  fashion 
rarely  exists  in  its  pristine  state  of  excellence  long  after  it  has 
become  popular:  its  aberrations  from  the  perfect  are  exaggerated 
at  each  remove;  and  if  its  form  be  in  some  measure  preserved,  it 
is  displayed  in  unsuitable  colours,  or  translated  into  inferior  ma- 
terials, until  the  original  design  becomes  so  vulgarized  as  to  disgust. 

There  are  many  persons  who,  while  they  affect  to  despise 
Fashion,  and  are  ostensibly  the  most  bitter  enemies  of  "  the 
goddess  with  the  rainbow  zone,"  are  always  making  secret  com- 
pacts and  compositions  with  her.  Their  constant  aim  is  to  achieve 
the  effect  of  every  new  style  of  dress,  without  betraying  the  most 
distant  imitation  of  it:  they  pilfer  the  ideas  of  the  modiste,  which 
they  use  (to  adopt  the  happy  expression  of  Sir  Fretful)  "  as  gipsies 
do  stolen  children, — disfigure  them  to  make  them  pass  for  their 
own."  This  is  pitiful  hypocrisy. 

Although  the  fickle  goddess  rarely  approaches  the  realms  of  the 
truly  beautiful,  except  immediately  after  having  rioted  in  the  re- 
gions of  absurdity;  and  scarcely  sojourns  in  the  classic  air  of  Greece 
for  a  moment,  ere  she  wings  her  way  to  that  which  is  most  Gothic 
and  barbarous ;  yet,  in  spite  of  her  absurdities,  she  is  not  only 
obeyed,  but  admired  in  all  ages  and  in  all  climes.  By  the  force 
of  habit,  and  by  an  unconscious  association  in  the  mind  of  a  dress 
and  its  wearer,  Fashion,  even  to  those  who  are  somewhat  fas- 
tidious, generally  appears  graceful.  To  please  her,  the  fine  lady 
of  one  country  almost  feeds  herself  into  an  apoplexy;  and  the 
would-be  beauty  of  another,  starves  herself  into  «'  the  sister  to  a 
shade."  The  Chinese  females  cripple  their  feet;  and  the  Eu- 
ropeans torture  their  waists  into  the  narrowest  possible  compass. 
In  one  age  she  induces  the  fair  sex  to  cover  their  faces  with 
patches;  and  in  the  next,  to  blush  if  necessity  compel  them  to 
apply  one ;  alternately,  to  cashier,  as  it  were,  their  natural  tresses 


282 


THE    TOILET. 


in  favour  of  "  false  locks  set  on  wires  to  make  them  stand  at  a 
distance  from  the  head,"  as  the  honest  old  herald,  Randle  Holme, 
describes  the  fashions  of  1670  (Fig.  2;) — to  elevate  their  hair  to  an 
immoderate  height,  as  exhibited  in  the  fine  portraits  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  (Fig.  3;) — and  to  cultivate  it  into  those  ringlets  drooping 
over  the  ears,  so  much  admired  in  the  fifteenth  century,  which 
have  often  come  into  partial  favour  during  our  own  time  (Fig.  4.) 


General  fashions  should  certainly  be  conformed  to,  when,  as 
Goldsmith  observes,  they  happen  not  to  be  repugnant  to  private 
beauty.  They  may  often  be  so  modified  as  to  suit  the  persons  of 
all ;  and  occasionally  be  so  managed  as  to  seem  to  have  been  created 
expressly  for  the  most  advantageous  display  of  many  individuals* 
graces  of  form  or  delicacy  of  complexion.  But  alterations  in  modes 
must  be  made  with  considerable  judgment,  otherwise  there  is  a 
risk  of  falling  into  absurdities  :  sometimes  they  are  altogether  in- 
tractable ;  it  is  impossible  so  to  change  a  fashion,  which  has  been 
especially  invented  for  some  tall  and  slender  arbitress  of  taste,  that 
it  may  at  once  retain  much  of  its  original  character,  and  look 
becoming  one  whose  form  is  either  stout  or  petite.  In  this  and 
similar  cases  the  attempt  should  be  abandoned,  with  the  consoling 
idea,  that  the  next  mode  will,  in  all  probability,  be  decidedly 
advantageous  to  those  who  are,  for  the  time  being,  debarred  by 
nature  from  appearing  at  once  graceful  and  fashionable,  and  the 
C6  Cynthias  of  the  minute, "  in  their  turn,  be  thrown  into  the  shade; 
for  the  authenticity  of  every  new  edict  of  Fashion  is  usually  war- 
ranted by  the  fact  of  its  being  directly  opposite,  in  letter  and  spirit, 
to  its  predecessor:  thus,  if  one  year  she  elevate  the  zone  to  its 
utmost  possible  height,  she  generally  depresses  it  in  an  equally 
unreasonable  degree  the  next ;  if  she  prescribe  evergreens  for  the 
ombellishment  of  the  hair,  in  June,  she  commands  "  summer's 


THE    TOILET. 


283 


glowing  coronal,"  for  the  same  purpose,  in  December.  Should 
high  flounces  be  patronized,  short  ladies  must  abstain  from 
adopting  them,  because  they  are  be- 
coming only  to  the  tall;  and  if  narrow 
dresses  obtain  pre-eminence,  the  slen- 
der must  not  sacrifice  that  fulness  in 
the  attire,  for  which,  to  them,  the 
most  exquisite  display  of  fashion  can 
never  be  a  sufficient  compensation. 
The  example  of  those  who  have  long 
necks  and  low  shoulders,  should  never 
lead  those  of  a  different  style  of  person, 
to  wear  necklaces  of  great  breadth, 
to  raise  the  dress  towards  the  ears, 
or,  by  quantity  of  drapery,  or  pro- 
fusion of  ornament,  to  produce  an 
apparent  union  of  the  head-gear  and 
the  shoulders.  Such  a  costume  as  that 

of  Elizabeth  of  York,  queen  of  Henry  the  Seventh  (Fig.  5,)  may 
add  dignity  to  a  certain  order  of  forms,  but  it  would  certainly 
produce  a  contrary  effect  on  the  appearance  of  those  who  have 
neither  long  necks  nor  depressed  shoulders. 

Jewellery  should  never  be  used  to  cover  any  imperfections  of 
form  in  the  neck ;  it  is  in  much  better  taste,  for  such  a  purpose,  to 
wear  a  neat  collar,  reaching  as  high  as  the  cheek  (Fig,  6,  Mary 
Queen  of  England.)  Those  who  happen  to  be  faultless  in  this 
respect,  look  better,  perhaps,  with  the  neck  altogether  unadorned 
(Figs.  7  and  8,  costumes  of  Mary  de  Berri,  wife  of  John  Duke  of 
Bourbon,  and  of  Anne  Boleyn.) 

6  7 


Whatever  be  the  reigning  mode,  and  however  beautiful  a  fine 
head  of  hair  may  be   generally  esteemed,  those  who  are  short  in 
24  * 


284 


THE    TOILET. 


stature,  or  small  in  features,  should  never  indulge  in  a  profuse 
display  of  their  tresses,  if  they  would,  in  the  one  case,  avoid  the 
appearance  of  dwarfishness  and  unnatural  size  of  the  head,  and 
in  the  other,  of  making  the  face  seem  less  than  it  actually  is,  and 
thus  causing  what  is  merely  petite  to  appear  insignificant.  If  the 
hair  be  closely  dressed  by  others,  those  who  have  round  or  broad 
faces  should,  nevertheless,  continue  to  wear  drooping  clusters  of 
curls;  and,  although  it  be  customary  to  part  the  hair  in  the  centre, 
the  division  should  be  made  on  one  side,  if  it  grow  low  on  the 
forehead  and  beautifully  high  on  the  temples ;  but  if  the  hair  be 
too  distant  from  the  eyebrows,  it  should  be  parted  only  in  the 
middle,  where  it  is  generally  lower  than  at  the  sides,  whatever 
temptations  Fashion  may  offer  to  the  contrary.  We  might  multiply 
instances  ad  libitum  j  but  the  foregoing  cases  will,  we  doubt  not, 
satisfactorily  elucidate  our  proposition.  It  is  our  object  to  impress 
on  our  readers,  the  propriety  of  complying  with  the  ordinances  of 
Fashion,  when  their  observance  is  not  forbidden,  by  individual 
peculiarities ;  and  the  necessity  of  fearlessly  setting  them  at  de- 
fiance, or  offering  only  a  partial  obedience,  when  a  compliance 
with  them  would  be  positively  detrimental  to  personal  grace  :  by 
these  means  they  may  escape  ^ie  imputation  of  resembling  those 
pictures,  in  which  "  the  face  is  the  work  of  a  Raphael,  but  the 
draperies  are  thrown  out  by  some  empty  pretender,  destitute  of 
taste,  and  entirely  unacquainted  with  design." 

To  form  the  taste  and  improve  the  style  of  dress,  a  careful 
observation  of  classical  figures,  and  some  of  the  costumes  of  by- 
gone centuries,  will,  doubtless,  be  found  of  considerable  advantage. 

9  10  11 


Let  not  the  reader  imagine  that  it  is  impossible  to  borrow  hints 
for  the  attire  from  such  sources  without  incurring  a  risk  of  appear- 
ing somewhat  antiquated ;  for  several  of  the  most  popular  modes 
of  the  present  century  have  been  mere  revivals  of  ancient  costumes 


THE    TOILET.  285 

Prince  Rupert's  mother  appears  to  have  dressed  her  hair  very 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  a  number  of  ladies  did  only  a  few 
years  since  (Fig.  9;)andthe  gentle  Lady  Jane  Grey's  attire  (Fig.  10) 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  a  plainly-dressed  young  woman  of  our 
own  time;  but  these  are  minor  resemblances  to  what  some  of  the 
costumes  of  past  times  afford.  The  female  head-dress  in  1688 
(Fig.  11,)  for  instance,  is  remarkably  similar  to  that  which  was 
very  lately  in  fashion  among  the  ladies  of  this  country.  Holme 
states,  that  the  forehead  was  adorned  with  a  knot  of  divers-co- 
loured ribbons,  the  head  with  a  ruffle  quoif  set  in  corners,  and  the 
like  ribbons  behind  the  head :  and  this  mode  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  an  invention  of  our  author's  day,  but  rather  a  revival 
of  some  mode  of  a  still  more  remote  period ;  for,  in  speaking  of 
this  and  other  devices  of  the  like  nature,  he  says,  all  are  brought 
again  from  the  old;  for  there  is  no  new  thing  under  the  sun,  and 
what  is  now  hath  been  formerly. 

We  have  still  a  much  more  singular  coincidence  of  coeffure  in 
reserve  than  any  that  have  hitherto  been  noticed.  However  strange 
2  the  statement  may  appear  in  words,  it 

is  true  in  fact,  that  the  small  bonnets 
worn  by  the  ladies  of  England  a  few 
years  ago,  and  which  struck  our  neigh- 
bours, the  French,  as  being  so  exces- 
sively ridiculous,  that  they  are  still 
found  in  their  caricatures  of  English 
women, — those  awkward,  inelegant, 
and  now  deservedly-abolished  little 
bonnets, — are  almost  fac-similes  of  the  helmet  of  Minerva,  on 
Lord  Montague's  chrysolite  (Fig.  12.) 

In  attempting  to  engraft  any  part  of  the  attire  of  olden  times 
upon  modern  styles,  as  much  discretion  and  judgment  are  required 
as  in  the  modification  of  an  ephemeral  fashion  to  personal  pecu- 
liarities :  in  the  words  of  an  Eastern  sage,  it  is  not  enough  that 
we  go  into  the  valley  of  flowers  to  gather  a  rose, — even  there  we 
should  not  snatch,  but  select.  In  turning  over  the  leaves  of  a  port- 
folio of  old  prints,  or  a  richly-illuminated  missal,  a  lady  must  not 
hastily  adopt  a  head-dress  because  it  is  attractive  and  unexception- 
able in  the  place  it  occupies : — she  should  rather  consider,  in  the 
first  place,  whether  it  will  admit  of  being  incorporated  with  the 
style  of  the  day;  and  next,  if  it  will  become  her  own  figure  or 
features.  The  coeffure  of  Sappho,  however  classical  it  may  be, 
would  by  no  means  suit  a  round  and  (if  we  may  use  the  term) 


286 


THE    TOILET. 


rural  face;  the  Greek  style  of  head-dress  requires  features  of  a 
Grecian  form ;  and  there  are  few  faces  that  can  afford  to  cover  the 
finer  portion  of  the  forehead  by  natural  curls,  or  artificial  orna- 
ment. (Fig.  13,  head  of  Sappho.  Fig.  14,  Greek  head,  from  a 
gem.  Fig.  15,  the  Taure  head-dress  of  1674.) 

13  14  15 


Although  sharp  features  will  never  be  improved  by  their  being 
surmounted  with  a  cone-shaped  cap;  nor  a  short  face,  or  one 
which  expresses  a  meek  and  retiring  disposition,  by  a  regal  coef- 
fure,  there  are  classes  of  features  to  which  either  of  these  styles 
would  be  suitable.  (Fig.  16,  head  of  the  Dauphiness  Margaret  of 
Scotland,  1400.  Fig.  17,  Train-bearer  to  Isabella,  of  Bavaria, 
Queen  of  Charles  the  Sixth  of  France.) 

16  17 


But  even  those  to  whom  such  costumes  would  be  very  becom- 
ing, must  not  venture  to  adopt  them  when  low  head-dresses  are 
exclusively  worn.  They  must  then  rather  have  recourse  to  the 


THE    TOILET. 


237 


pictorial  records  of  those  eras  when  comparatively  low  coeffures 
were  in  vogue  (Figs.  18,  19,  and  20,  head-dresses  in  Luther's  time.) 

18  19  20 


It  is  almost  impossible  to  form  a  theory  of  the  proper  combina- 
tion of  colours  applicable  to  dress :  they  are  subject  to  a  thousand 
contingencies,  and  we  daily  discover  agreeable  harmonies  of  tint 
where  we  least  expected  them,  and  excruciating  discords  produced 
by  the  juxta-position  of  hues,  which,  from  our  previous  experience, 
we  were  induced  to  imagine  would  prove  pleasing  rather  than 
offensive.  The  influence  of  some  neighbouring  tint,  the  position 
of  the  colours  combined,  their  relative  stations,  and  the  materials 
adopted  for  each,  frequently  tend  to  produce  these  effects.  The 
colour  of  a  single  rosette  often  destroys  the  general  tone  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  dress,  and  occasionally  it  may  be  managed  with 
such  skill  as  to  blend  the  tints  of  two  or  more  principal  parts  of  the 
costume,  which,  without  some  such  mediator,  would  render  each 
other  obnoxious  to  the  eye  of  taste.  It  is  quite  certain,  that  the 
same  colour,  which  imparts  a  liveliness  and  brilliancy  when  used 
for  light  embellishments,  and  in  a  small  quantity,  becomes  vulgar, 
showy,  and  disagreeable,  if  adopted  for  the  most  extensive  portion 
and  leading  tint  of  the  attire ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  delicate 
or  neutral  colours,  which  look  well  when  displayed  over  a  con- 
siderable surface,  dwindle  into  insignificance  if  used  in  small  de- 
tached portions  for  minor  ornaments.  Generally  speaking,  trim- 
mings will  bear  a  greater  richness  of  colours  than  the  principal 
material  of  the  dress,  the  breadth  of  which  is  apt  entirely  to  subdue 
its  decorations  if  they  be  not  a  little  more  powerful  in  tint.  But  it 
is  a  grave  error  to  endow  the  minor  parts  of  the  costume  with  an 
undue  superiority  over  the  rest;  it  should  never  be  forgotten, 
that  the  trimming  is  intended  to  embellish  the  dress,  rather  than 
that  the  dress  should  sink  into  a  mere  field  for  the  display  of  the 
trimming:  sufficient  importance  should  always  be  given  to  the 
latter,  so  that  it  may  enhance  the  beauty,  add  to  the  richness,  or 


288  THE    TOILET. 

harmonize  with  the  purity  and  neatness  of  the  former;  but  if  its 
colours  be  too  strong,  or  even  when  of  the  proper  shade,  if  the 
material  be  too  profuse,  or  not  of  a  quality  sufficiently  delicate,  it 
gives  to  the  wearer  either  a  frittered,  gaudy,  or  coarse  appearance, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  fault.  The  same  tint  which  looks 
well  in  a  delicate  material,  will  not  become  an  article  which  is  made 
of  «« sterner  stuff." 

The  occurrence  of  glaring  offences  against  good  taste  in  the 
trimmings  or  fixed  embellishments  of  any  principal  part  of  the 
attire,  is  rare,  compared  with  those  which  are  perpetrated  in  the 
minor  articles  of  gloves,  shoes,  ribbons,  &c.  which  are  the  more  im- 
portant of  the  two,  because  they  are  not  the  trimmings  or  finishing 
decorations  of  a  part,  but  to  the  whole  of  the  costume.  The  for- 
mer are  usually  left  to  the  experience  of  the  milliner,  or  copied 
from  the  production  of  some  tasteful  modiste;  the  latter  depend 
solely  on  the  judgment  of  the  private  individual.  How  often  have 
we  seen  a  dress,  exquisite  in  all  its  parts,  utterly  ruined,  by  the 
wearer,  as  a  finishing  touch,  drawing  on  a  vulgar  glove!  Much 
mischief  of  a  similar  nature  is  frequently  done,  by  feathers,  flowers, 
ribbons,  shoes,  and  articles  of  jewellery.  It  is  not  enough  that  a 
flower  is  pretty;  it  must  harmonize  with,  or  form  a  pleasing  con- 
trast to  the  other  parts  of  the  costume,  otherwise  its  use  must  be 
rigorously  forbidden.  It  is  the  same  with  jewellery :  pearls,  for 
instance,  will  suit  those  kinds  of  dresses  which  rubies  would  spoil; 
and  the  latter  are  appropriate  in  cases  where  the  former  would 
look  faint  and  ineffective.  Coloured  shoes,  we  need  scarcely  say, 
are  exceedingly  vulgar:  delicate  pink,  and  faint-blue  silk,  for 
these  articles,  have  numerous  advocates ;  but  white  satin,  black 
satin  or  kid,  and  bronze  kid,  are  neater  and  more  elegant  than 
any  other  colour  or  material.  Gloves  should  be  in  the  most  delicate 
tints  that  can  be  procured:  their  colour  has  always  an  effect  upon 
the  general  appearance;  one  kind  of  hue  must  not,  therefore, 
be  indiscriminately  worn,  or,  however  beautiful  it  may  be  in 
itself,  obstinately  persisted  in,  when  every  other  part  of  the  attire 
is  constantly  subject  to  change. 

As  it  would  be  in  bad  taste  for  a  fair  young  lady,  who  is 
rather  short  in  stature,  however  pretty  she  may  be,  if  irregular 
as  well  as  petite  in  her  features,  to  take  for  a  model,  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  her  hair,  a  cast  from  a  Greek  head ;  so  also  would  it 
for  one,  whose  features  are  large,  to  fritter  away  her  hair, — which 
ought  to  be  kept,  as  much  as  possible,  in  masses  of  large  curls, 
so  as  to  subdue,  or,  at  least,  harmonize  with  her  features, — into 


THE    TOILET.  289 

such  thin  and  meagre  ringlets  as  we  have  seen,  trickling,  ff  few 
and  far  between,"  down  the  white  brow  of  a  portrait  done  in  the 
days  of  our  first  King  Charles.  Yet  there  is  a  class  of  features, 
to  which  even  these  are  becoming :  of  this  we  may  be  convinced 
by  a  glance  at  a  collection  of  portraits  of  that  period;  unless, 
indeed,  it  be  true,  that  fine  features,  when  ennobled  by  the  in- 
ward light  of  intelligence,  purity,  and  goodness,  look  well  in  any 
fashion; — that  they  govern  and  give  character  to  the  style  in 
which  they  are  dressed,  and  impart  a  charm  to,  rather  than  re- 
ceive any  benefit  from,  either  modes  or  ornaments.  Even  if  this 
be  the  case,  there  are  but  few  heads  which  possess,  in  a  sufficient 
degree,  the  power  to  defy  the  imputation  of  looking  absurd,  or 
inelegant,  if  the  hair  be  dressed  in  a  style  inconsistent  with  the 
character  of  the  face,  according  to  those  canons  of  criticism  which 
are  founded  upon  the  principles  of  a  pure  and  correct  taste,  and 
established  by  the  opinions  of  the  most  renowned  painters  and 
sculptors,  in  every  highly-civilized  nation,  for  ages  past. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  hair,  according  to  the  shape  of  the 
face,  and  expression  of  the  features, — in  the  harmonizing  of  the 
colours,  used  in  dress,  with  the  tint  of  the  complexion, — in  the 
adaptation  of  form,  fashion,  and  even  material,  to  the  person, 
— there  is  an  ideal  beauty,  as  well  as  in  the  figure  itself:  this 
beauty  is  well  understood;  but  it  is  very  difficult, — nay,  almost 
impossible, — to  describe;  for  it  must  be  considered  in  relation  to, 
and  as  modified  by,  the  infinite  varieties  of  form,  feature,  and 
complexion.  The  shades  of  difference  are  often  so  minute; — the 
intermixtures  of  various  styles  of  person  (if  we  may  use  the  ex- 
pression) are  so  manifold; — Nature  is  so  illimitable  in  her  beautiful 
combinations; — that,  although  we  may  legislate  for  the  few, — the 
very  few,  who  are  of  any  decided  order  of  form,  feature,  or  com- 
plexion,— we  cannot  do  so  for  the  greater  portion, — the  number- 
less individuals  who,  though  by  no  means  less  attractive,  may  be 
said  to  belong  to  no  class,  but  unite  the  peculiarities  of  many. 

It  is  admitted,  that  the  brunette  will  look  best  in  one  colour,  and 
the  blonde  in  another; — that  to  the  oval  face  a  particular  style  of 
dressing  the  hair  is  most  becoming ;  and  to  the  elongated,  a  mode 
directly  the  reverse; — that  the  short  should  not  wear  their  dresses 
flounced  so  high  as  the  tall: — but  in  saying  this,  we  are  speaking 
to  a  comparatively  small  number  of  persons.  The  decidedly  dark, 
and  those  of  a  positively  opposite  complexion,  are  few:  it  is  the 
same  with  the  tall  and  the  short, — those  with  round  faces,  and  the 
contrary:  in  each  case,  the  multitude  is  to  be  found  "in  the 


290  THE    TOILET. 

golden  mean,"  between  the  two  extremes.  The  persons  com- 
posing the  majority  should  neither  adopt  the  specific  uniform  of 
the  blonde  or  the  brunette, — the  style  of  dress  suitable  to  the 
lofty  and  commanding  figure,  or  to  that  of  the  pretty  and  petite; 
but  modify  general  principles  to  particular  cases; — not  by  pro- 
ducing an  heterogeneous  mixture  of  a  number  of  different  styles, 
but  by  adopting  a  mode  which  borders  upon  that  adapted  to  the 
class  to  which  their  persons  approach  the  nearest,  without  entirely 
losing  sight  of,  and  in  some  degree  being  governed  by,  their  own 
distinguishing  and  specific  peculiarities: — in  fact,  to  be  guided  by 
that  indispensable  and  ruling  power  in  all  matters  connected  with 
the  Toilet, — taste;  which,  as  Demosthenes  said  of  action  in  rela- 
tion to  eloquence,  is  the  first,  second,  and  third  grand  requisite, 
combining  the  triple  qualities  of  propriety,  neatness,  and  elegance. 
By  its  powerful  aid,  the  most  simple  materials  are  rendered  valu- 
able; without  it,  the  richest  robes,  the  most  costly  jewels,  and 
"  tresses  like  the  morn,"  may  be  so  employed  as  to  encumber 
rather  than  to  adorn. 


EMBROIDERY. 


Come  hither,  come  hither,  thon  forester  bold  ; 

Come  hither,  Sir  Maurice,  ai. 
\Vhi-i-e  four  fair  maidens,  in  cloth  of  gold, 

Kmbrode  thy  victorie. 

_ .  UMEROUS  as  are  the  subjects  treated  on  in 
this  work,  there  are  few  which  furnish  a 
more  pleasing  occupation  than  Embroidery 
To  this  art  our  readers  are  indebted  for 
some  of  the  most  elegant  articles  of  dress. 
It  may,  also,  afford  them  opportunities  of 
displaying  their  taste  and  ingenuity;  and 
offers  a  graceful  occupation,  and  an  inexhaustible  source  of  laudable 
and  innocent  amusement.  "  The  great  variety  of  needle- works," 
says  Mrs.  Griffith,  "  which  the  ingenious  women  of  other  countries, 
as  well  as  of  our  own,  have  invented,  will  furnish  us  with  constant 
and  amusing  employment;  and  though  our  labours  may  not  equal 
a  Mineron's,  or  an  Aylesbury's,  yet,  if  they  unbend  the  mind,  by 
fixing  its  attention  on  the  progress  of  any  elegant,  or  imitative  art, 
they  answer  the  purpose  of  domestic  amusement;  and,  when  the 
higher  duties  of  our  situation  do  not  call  forth  our  exertions,  we 
may  feel  the  satisfaction  of  knowing,  that  we  are,  at  least,  inno- 
cently employed." 

This  art  fhay  be  traced  to  the  most  distant  periods  of  antiquity. 
Coloured    Embroidery   and    Tapestry  were,  according   to    Pliny, 
known,  in  very  remote  ages,  among  the  Jews  and  Babylonians. 
25 


292  EMBROIDERY. 

As  a  proof  that  this  art  was  applied,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  to 
what  may  be  termed  historical  subjects,  Helen  is  described,  in  the 
third  book  of  the  Iliad,  as  occupied  in  embroidering  the  evils  of 
the  Greeks  and  Trojans,  of  which  she  was  the  cause ;  and  when 
the  intelligence  of  Hector's  death  was  brought  to  Andromache, 

Far  in  the  close  recesses  of  the  dome, 

1  i :n>ivi-  she  plied  the  melancholy  loom  ; 

A  growing  work  employed  her  secret  views, — 

Sp.ittt-d,  diverse,  with  intermingled  hues. 

Penelope  beguiled  the  tedious  hours,  during  Ulysses'  absence  at 
the  siege  of  Troy,  with  Embroidery;  and  we  might  adduce  many 
other  instances,  by  which  it  would  be  clearly  shown,  that  the  art 
was  held  in  equal  estimation  by  the  noble  ladies  of  antiquity,  as 
by  those  of  our  own  country  in  the  olden  times,  who,  surrounded 
and  assisted  by  their  bower-women,  employed  themselves  by  re- 
presenting, in  the  richest  Tapestry-work,  the  heroic  deeds  which 
their  living  relatives,  or  noble  ancestors,  had  achieved.  Many  of 
these  splendid  monuments  of  the  genius  and  industry  of  the  ladies 
of  those  days,  are  still  preserved,  and  constitute  the  hangings, 
and  other  decorations,  of  the  state  apartments  of  some  of  our  old 
palaces  and  castles.  Magnificent  works  of  this  nature  were  also 
performed  in  convents,  by  the  nuns  and  ladies  of  rank,  who,  from 
choice,  or  otherwise,  resided  within  their  walls ;  the  talents  of  the 
greatest  masters  in  the  art  of  painting  being  often  employed  to 
produce  the  designs.  Raphael's  celebrated  cartoons  were  a  series 
of  scripture  pieces,  executed  as  patterns  to  be  worked  in  Tapestry. 
The  art,  at  length,  rose  into  such  high  esteem,  and  Tapestry 
became  so  generally  adoptedj  for  hangings  of  apartments,  that 
the  needle  could  no  longer  supply  the  immense  demand  for  it; 
and  looms  were  invented,  in  which  it  was  woven  on  the  most 
extensive  scale.  This  improved  method  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  Flanders;  it  was  introduced  to  this  country  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth.  James  the  First  gave  a  large  sum  of 
money  towards  the  erection  of  a  manufactory  for  weaving  Tapestry, 
at  Mortlake,  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  which  flourished  there 
for  many  years.  The  manufacture  of  Tapestry  in  France,  was 
introduced  under  the  auspices  of  Henry  the  Fourth;  and  that 
kingdom  may  boast  of  having  once  possessed  the  most  magnificent 
establishment  of  the  kind  that  ever  existed:  we  allude  to  the 
Hotel  Royal  des  Gobelins,  which  a  French  dyer,  of  «the  name  of 
Giles  Gobelin,  early  in  the  .sixteenth  century,  erected  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  on  his  business,  near  a  rivulet,  which  ran  through 


EMBROIDERY.  293 

the  suburbs  of  St.  Marcel,  in  Paris.  In  the  water  of  this  rivulet 
he  discovered  certain  qualities,  which  he  supposed  would  be  bene- 
ficial in  the  prosecution  of  his  improvement  on  the  mode  of  dyeing 
red.  His  undertaking  appeared  to  be  so  absurd,  that  the  building 
was  called  Gobelin's  Folly;  but,  eventually,  he  produced  so  splen- 
did a  scarlet,  that  he  grew  into  high  repute  as  a  dyer;  and  he  and 
his  family  continued  to  carry  on  the  business  in  the  same  place, 
until  about  the  year  1667 ;  when  the  building  was  purchased  by 
the  French  government,  and  Tapestry,  on  an  immense  scale,  was 
manufactured  there  for  a  considerable  period.  The  establishment 
is  still  kept  up,  but  has  long  been  a  mere  shadow  of  its  former 
greatness. 

A  slight  sketch  of  the  mode  in  which  Tapestry  was  woven  in 
this  great  manufactory,  may  not  be  altogether  uninteresting. 
Artists  of  eminence  were  employed  to  design  and  paint  in  water- 
colours,  on  stiff  card,  or  pasteboard,  patterns,  called  cartons,  or 
cartoons,  of  the  full  size  of  the  subjects  intended  to  be  woven. 
The  carton  was  covered  with  perpendicular  and  horizontal  black 
lines ;  its  surface  thus  presenting  a  series  of  squares,  corresponding 
with  those  formed  by  the  upright  and  cross  threads  of  Tapestry. 
The  workman  counted  the  number  of  squares  in  each  colour  on 
the  carton,  as  a  guide  to  the  number  of  stitches,  or  threads,  to  be 
inserted  in  worsteds,  or  silks,  of  the  respective  colours,  in  the 
Tapestry ;  looms,  both  perpendicular  and  horizontal  were  employed, 
similar  in  general  principle  to  those  in  which  carpets  and  hearth- 
rugs are  woven  at  the  present  day.  Threads,  called  the  warp, 
were  stitched  the  long  way  of  the  intended  piece ;  and  alternately 
elevated  and  depressed  by  machinery,  for  the  purpose  of  intro- 
ducing between  them  the  silks,  or  worsteds,  intended  to  form  the 
pattern,  and  which  were  collected,  by  the  side  of  the  workman, 
wound  on  reels,  and  inserted  in  the  warp  by  means  of  a  stick, 
called  the  flute,  corresponding  with  a  weaver's  shuttle.  The  Tap- 
estry being  thus  woven  in  breadths,  when  joined  or  fine-drawn  to- 
gether, formed  one  grand  subject,  frequently  large  enough  to  cover 
all  the  sides  of  a  splendid  apartment. 

The  manufacture  of  the  loom-woven  Tapestry  originated  in 
Embroidery  with  the  needle,  and  presented  a  precisely  similar 
appearance ;  being  merely  an  extension  of  the  art  by  means  of 
machinery. 

We  shall  close  our  introductory  observations  with  a  brief  notice 
of  the  history  of  Lace-making,  and  a  few  remarks  on  the  various 
kinds  of  Lace, 


L'iJl  EMBROIDERY. 

It  has  been  supposed,  by  some  authors,  that  the  art  of  making 
and  working  in  Lace  is  of  great  antiquity;  but  no  positive  mention 
of  it  is  made  in  any  of  the  <irrrk  or  Koman  authors;  and  the 
rich  borders  of  die  ancient  vestments,  which  have  been  considered, 
from  the  descriptions  given  of  them,  as  Lace,  \\err,  more  pro- 
bably, Knibr.«i<!ery  of  some  curious  and  costly  description.  Lace 
was  formerly  made  with  tin:  needle,  in  convents,  and  is  still  found 
attached  to  old  furniture  in  some  religious  houses  on  the  Continent. 
The  honour  of  its  invention  has  been  confidently  ascribed  to  Italy; 
but  it  appears  tolerably  clear,  that  the  art  of  knitting  Lace,  which 
i*>  much  more  modern  than  that  of  producing  it  with  the  needle, 
was  first  discovered  in  Saxony,  about  the  year  1561,  by  a  female 
of  the  name  of  Barbara  Uttmann.  The  art,  by  degrees,  found 
its  way  to  Brussels;  and  was  thence  introduced  into  France,  in 
1666.  A  lady,  of  the  name  of  Du  Mont,  and  her  daughters,  ob- 
tained an  exclusive  privilege  for  its  manufacture;  and  it  soon 
became  so  fashionable,  that,  in  a  short  time,  the  establishment 
afforded  employment  to  above  two  hundred  females. 

The  laces  now  most  in  use  are  Brussels-point,  Mechlin,  Valen- 
ciennes, Lisle,  Chantilly,  and  Blonde.  Most  of  these  are  made 
on  a  pillow,  or  cushion,  with  bobbins,  in  the  following  manner: — 
a  small  table,  or  frame,  has  a  square  hole  in  its  centre,  in  which 
revolves,  horizontally,  a  cylinder  of  wood,  covered  with  several 
thicknesses  of  linen,  and  stuffed  underneath  with  wool.  On  this 
pillow  is  fixed  the  pattern  for  working  the  intended  lace:  viz. — a 
piece  of  parchment,  on  which  the  (lowers  or  sprigs  are  drawn  in 
outline:  and  the  apertures  of  the  Lace  are  pricked  in  small  holes. 
The  pattern  is  so  drawn,  that,  when  passed  round  the  pillow,  and 
its  ends  joined,  the  design  runs  on  in  regular  continuity.  Accord- 
ing to  the  pattern  of  the  Lace,  and  the  number  of  threads,  a 
quantity  of  small  bobbins  is  used,  on  which  fine  threads  are 
wound;  they  have  small  handles,  by  which  the  threads  are  twisted, 
and  otherwise  interwoven  in  the  working.  The  thread  is  confined 
on  each  bobbin  by  a  small  collar,  or  clip  of  bone,  having  a  slit 
down  its  side,  so  as  to  open  a  little,  and,  when  pressed  on,  to 
retain  the  thread  on  the  bobbin  with  a  slight  elastic  pressure.  It 
is  not  uncommon,  in  many  parts  of  England,  and  on  the  conti- 
nent, to  see  the  female  peasantry  at  the  cottage-doors,  engaged 
in  making  Lace.  They,  however,  use  only  a  simple  cushion, 
placed  on  the  lap.  The  apparatus  we  have  described  is  an  im- 
provement on  that  mode  of  working.  The  ends  of  the  whole  of 
the  threads  requisite  are  fastened  in  a  knot,  at  the  commence- 


EMBROIDERY.  295 

ment;  and  the  Net,  or  Lace,  is  formed  by  crossing  them  over 
each  other;  twisting  two  or  three  together,  and  otherwise  com- 
bining them,  in  too  intricate  a  manner  to  admit  of  a  proper  expla- 
nation here.  The  meshes  of  the  Net  are  formed  by  brass  pins, 
which  are  placed  in  a  row  on  the  pillow,  according  to  the  holes  in 
the  parchment-pattern ;  the  threads  are  then  passed  or  entwined 
round  them  by  throwing  the  bobbins  from  one  side  to  the  other, 
and  twisting  the  threads  so  as  to  form  the  meshes;  succeeding 
rows  of  pins  are  stuck  on  the  cushion,  close  to  the  places  where 
the  threads  have  previously  crossed  each  other ;  other  meshes  are 
formed  around  them;  the  first  pins  are  removed  and  stuck  in  the 
pillow  again,  and  the  process  continues.  The  pillow  revolves  on 
its  centre  as  the  work  proceeds  along  the  pattern,  and  the  Lace, 
as  it  is  finished,  passes  over  the  pillow  into  a  drawer  underneath. 
The  flowers,  or  other  ornamental  subjects,  in  the  Lace,  are  inter- 
woven at  the  same  time  that  the  Lace  is  made,  by  a  minute 
crossing  of  the  fine  threads  of  which  the  Net  is  composed,  together 
with  an  intermixture  of  stronger  threads,  principally  for  outlines; 
the  whole  of  the  flowers,  or  subjects,  are  formed  by  placing  the 
pins  in  their  proper  positions,  as  guides  for  the  interweaving  of 
the  threads. 

In  some  kinds  of  Lace,  the  more  solid  parts  of  leaves  or 
flowers  are  formed  by  the  introduction  of  the  finest  cambric,  inter- 
woven with  the  Net,  or  inserted  afterwards  with  the  needle. 

Brussels  Point-Lace  has  always  been  deemed  the  most  valuable, 
and  is  the  only  sort  used  in  court-dresses,  for  gentlemen's  frills  and 
ruffles,  and  the  principal  one  for  the  trimmings  of  ladies'  dresses. 
The  most  beautiful  and  expensive  veils  are  also  of  this  manufac- 
ture. It  may  be  distinguished  by  the  appearance  of  some  parts  of 
its  ornamental  leaves,  which  resemble  French  cambric;  and  by 
a  thick  and  bold  prominent  thread  round  their  margin,  which 
appears  worked  over  in  button-hole  stitch  with  another  very  fine 
thread;  it  has  also  a  peculiar  yellow  hue,  which  tint  is  studiously 
preserved  by  rinsing  the  Lace,  after  having  been  washed,  in  a  weak 
solution  of  coffee. 

Mechlin  Lace  ranks  next  in  estimation  for  delicacy,  firmness, 
and  accuracy  in  the  Net;  and  the  flowers,  which  are  woven  in  the 
working,  have  generally  a  thicker  thread  worked  in  at  the  same 
time,  and  forming  their  outline. 

Valenciennes  Lace  is  noted  for  its  strength  and  durability.      Its 
ornamental   sprigs  and  flowers  are  woven  like  those  before  de- 
scribed ;  but  they  have  not,  usually,  any  outline  of  thicker  thread 
25* 


296  EMBROIDERY. 

The  Lace  of  Lisle  is  strong  and  useful,  but  not  very  fine,  and 
is  held  in  less  estimation  than  those  previously  mentioned. 

By  Chantilly,  is  generally  understood  ;t  I/u-e  formed  of  the 
finest  black  twists!  silk.  The  veils  of  this  kind  are  much  admired. 
The  thicker  parts  of  the  (lowers  seem  composed  of  several  thick- 
nesses of  silk,  having  the  appearui;<v  of  being  darned  in  after- 
wards. The  lighter  parts  are  formed  in  the  making  of  the  Lace. 

Blonde  Lace  is  of  silk,  both  black  and  white,  and  has  a  more 
shining  appearance  than  the  Chantilly ;  arising  from  the  texture 
of  the  silk,  which  is  not  so  hardly  twisted.  It  is  usually  employed 
for  the  trimmings  of  dresses.  The  flowers  and  leaves  are  in  general 
distinguished  by  one  of  their  sides  being  worked  very  thickly,  and 
the  other  formed  by  open  work. 

There  are  many  other  kinds  of  Lace,  named  after  various 
continental  towns ;  but  those  we  have  described  are  in  the  highest 
reputation.  We  hardly  know  why  the  distinct  qualities  in  the 
Laces  we  have  enumerated,  should  appertain  especially  to  the 
particular  places  whose  names  they  bear;  but  it  is  well  known, 
that  the  Laces  bearing  the  names  of  certain  places,  have  peculiar 
qualities  and  appearances,  whether  they  are  made  at  those  towns 
or  not. 

There  are  various  British  imitations  of  the  foreign  Laces; 
among  which  the  productions  of  Nottingham  are  the  most  dis- 
tinguished. There  is  also  a  kind  called  Honiton  Lace,  in  which 
the  flowers,  or  sprigs,  are  made  separately,  and  sewn  on  after- 
wards. The  Honiton  sprigs  and  trimmings  may  be  purchased 
alone,  for  ladies  to  embroider  on  net,  and  to  their  own  taste. 

Among  the  English  Laces,  Urling's  Lace-Net  has,  latterly, 
obtained  the  greatest  celebrity,  for  the  beauty  of  its  patterns,  and 
its  cheapness.  It  is  made  by  means  of  machinery,  and  the  Net 
is  cleared  from  all  its  loose  fibrous  parts  by  being  passed  over  the 
flame  of  gas.  It  is  applied  to  all  the  purposes  of  other  Laces,  as 
well  as  to  veils  and  dresses.  All  the  plain  Net  which  is  now  to 
be  had,  for  embroidering  and  other  ornamental  purposes,  is  of 
this  kind. 

Lace-making,  though  formerly  practised  by  ladies,  having  now 
become  so  important  a  branch  of  European  manufacture  as  to 
furnish  employment  for  many  thousands  of  females,  to  give  proper 
practical  instructions  would  be  useless;  we  have,  therefore,  only 
aimed  at  conveying  such  information  as  would  afford  our  young 
friends  a  general  idea  of  the  process. 

Quitting  the  historical  for  the  practical  part  of  our  subject,  we 


EMBROIDERY.  297 

now  proceed  to  notice  modern  Embroidery,  and  to  describe,  in 
succession,  those  branches  of  the  art  which  we  consider  most 
worthy  of  attention. 

COLOURED   EMBROIDERY. 

Pictorial,  or  Coloured  Embroidery,  is  similar,  in  some  respects, 
to  the  ancient  Tapestry;  although  it  is  generally  worked  on  a 
smaller  scale,  and  is  rather  different  in  practice.  It  comprehends 
the  admired  productions  of  the  needle  in  coloured  Embroidery, 
with  worsteds  and  silks  of  various  hues,  and  is  applied  to  the 
imitation  of  paintings;  comprising  all  the  varieties  of  landscape, 
groups  of  animals,  historical  subjects,  fruits,  flowers,  birds,  shells, 
&c.  Its  effect  is  very  brilliant  if  it  be  well  executed,  and  judg- 
ment and  taste  be  displayed  in  the  selection  of  the  various  shades 
of  colour;  it  is,  in  fact,  "  the  soul  and  sentiment  of  the  art." 

The  fine  twisted  worsted,  called  crewel,  and  both  twisted  and 
flos  silks,  are  employed  in  coloured  Embroidery.  Silk  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  flowers,  birds  and  butterflies,  and  is  worked  on  a 
silk  or  satin  ground.  The  latter  is  by  far  the  richest  in  appearance; 
and  nothing,  in  this  art,  can  have  a  more  splendid  effect  than  a 
well-arranged  group  of  flowers,  embroidered  in  twisted  silks  on 
black  satin.  A  talent  for  painting  is  of  material  advantage  in  this 
delightful  pursuit;  the  variety  and  delicacy  of  the  tints  giving 
ample  scope  to  the  genius  of  the  embroideress. 

The  subjects  worked  in  crewels,  consist  of  animals,  landscapes, 
and  figures,  on  fine  white  holland  for  large  designs,  and  on  white 
silk,  or  satin,  for  small  ones.  Silks  are  rarely  used  in  the  same 
pieces  with  worsteds,  except  for  the  purpose  of  representing  water, 
which  should  be  worked  in  flos  silk  of  pale  grayish  shades.  The 
holland,  or  silk,  on  which  the  subject  is  to  be  worked,  must  l>e 
first  strained  tightly  over  a  wooden  frame,  and  secured  with  small 
tacks  at  the  back.  The  design  is  then  to  be  sketched  in  pencil, 
and  coloured  in  water-colours,  rubbed  tip  with  gum-water,  as  a 
guide  to  the  colours  and  shades  to  be  selected  in  the  progress  of 
the  work.  It  is,  however,  proper  to  observe,  that  frames,  strained 
for  use,  and  with  subjects  drawn  and  coloured  on  the  holland,  or 
silk,  may  be  purchased  at  many  of  the  fancy  shops. 

The  features  of  the  face,  the  hair,  and  all  flesh  parts,  on  a  silk 
or  satin  ground,  are  usually  finished  in  colours  by  the  artist,  and 
left  untouched  in  the  Embroidery. 

One  kind  of  stitch  only  is  used  in  this  work:  it  resembles  the 
thread  of  satin.  Having  tied  a  knot  at  its  end,  the  worsted  is  first 


298  EMBROIDERY. 

brought   from  the  under-side  of  the  cloth  to   its  surface ;    then  (in 
working  a  sky,  earth,  grass  or  water,  drapery,  or  any  other  plain 

subject)  the   need  It-  is,   passed   back   again,  from  the  upper-side,  at 
about  half  an  inch  distance. 

;^,fi    nff 

it  more    or  less,  in   proportion 
to    the   size   of  the    subject. 


It  is  again  brought  up,  at 
about  half  way  distance  from 
the  first  point;  the  stitch 
reaching  about  as  far  beyond  the  second.  The  stitches  are  taken 
the  long  way  of  the  figure,  or  subject,  ranging  in  parallel  lines, 
and  of  unequal  lengths,  in  order  more  completely  to  cover  the 
ground  (Fig.  1.)  In  drapery,  the  stitches  should  be  taken  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  threads,  or  grain,  would  naturally  fall.  Leaves 
of  trees  are  worked,  for  distant  effect,  in  short  stitches,  crossing 
each  other  in  various  directions.  The  rough  coats  of  some  animals, 
as  the  sheep,  &c.  may  be  worked  in  lamb's-wool,  of  the  proper 
shades. 

To  say  anything  of  the  colours  to  be  selected,  would  be  useless; 
it  is  only  necessary  to  follow,  as  closely  as  possible,  the  colouring 
and  shading  of  the  artist  in  the  ground  sketch,  and  good  taste 
will  avail  more  than  a  volume  of  instructions.  An  attentive  and 
minute  inspection  of  good  specimens,  will  be  of  the  utmost  service; 
and  if  the  aspirant  to  excellence  in  this  beautiful  art,  have  not  seen 
the  matchless  performances  of  Miss  Lin  wood,  at  the  exhibition 
of  needle-work,  in  Leicester-square,  let  us  advise  her  no  longer 
to  deny  herself  that  gratification,  or  lose  the  benefit  which  cannot 
fail  to  result  from  a  visit  to  this  splendid  collection  of  pictures,  in 
which  some  of  the  finest  paintings  of  the  great  English  and  Italian 
masters  are  imitated  in  a  style  of  almost  incredible  excellence.  It 
is  particularly  worthy  of  admiration,  that  the  flesh  parts,  and  even 
the  features  of  the  face,  are  worked  entirely  with  the  needle;  and 
with  such  talent  and  delicacy,  that,  at  a  very  short  distance,  they 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  finest  productions  of  the  pencil. 

CHENILLE. 

Embroidery  in  Chenille  is  usually  done  on  white  Gros  de 
Naples,  or  white  lutestring,  for  producing  representations  of  groups 
of  flowers  in  their  natural  colours,  principally  for  pictures.  Che- 
nille is  a  fine  silk  poil,  or  nap,  twisted  spirally  round  a  thread, 
for  purposes  such  as  we  are  now  describing,  and  round  a  fine 


EMBROIDERY.  299 

wire  when  used  in  making  artificial  flowers;  and  has  derived  its 
name  from  its  slightly  caterpillar-like  appearance.  The  silk,  on 
which  it  is  to  be  worked,  must  be  strained  in  the  middle  of  a 
frame,  similar  to  that  used  in  Worsted-work.  A  coloured  copy  is 
requisite,  from  which  a  light  outline  sketch  should  be  made  in 
pencil  on  the  silk.  Chenille  of  all  the  requisite  shades  having 
been  provided,  it  is  attached  to  the  silk,  not  by  passing  through, 
after  the  manner  of  Worsted  Embroidery,  but  by  sewing,  or  tack- 
ing down,  as  the  nap  would  be  much  injured  by  being  drawn 
through  the  silk.  A  fine  needle,  and  silk  of  the  same  shade  as 
the  Chenille  to  be  attached,  having  been  provided,  the  stalk  of 
the  flower  is  to  be  commenced  by  confining  to  the  silk  ground  the 
end  of  the  Chenille,  with  a  small  stitch  of  similarly-coloured  silk, 
and  which  will  be  concealed  in  the  poil.  The  Chenille  is  then  to 
be  carried  along  the  stalk,  according  to  the  sketch,  tacking  it  in 
a  similar  way  at  intervals;  the  stalk  may  be  of  one,  two,  or  three 
rows,  according  to  the  thickness  required.  A  leaf,  if  large,  is 
formed  by  passing  the  Chenille  from  the  centre  vein  towards  one 
edge,  in  a  bias  direction,  backwards  and  forwards,  laying  the 
rows  closely  together,  and  confining  them  at  the  turnings  and  at 
the  centre ;  the  other  side  is  done  in  a  similar  manner.  For  a  small 
leaf,  or  bud,  the  Chenille  may  be  passed  across  the  whole  breadth 
of  it,  and  may  be  turned  over  itself  where  necessary.  The  flowers 
are  to  be  formed  of  Chenille  in  the  tints  of  the  coloured  pattern, 
and  attached  in  the  various  directions  which  may  seem  most 
accordant  to  their  shape.  When  it  is  desired  to  quit  any  colour, 
the  end  of  the  Chenille  is  secured  by  passing  a  fine  silk  loop  over 
it,  threaded  in  a  needle,  and  drawing  the  end  of  the  Chenille 
through  the  silk  with  the  loop ;  it  is  then  cut  off,  and  the  poil  will 
prevent  its  slipping  back.  To  produce  the  effect  of  shading,  or 
blending  one  tint  into  another,  the  Chenille  must  be  set  wide, 
the  ends  must  terminate  by  being  drawn  through,  as  before  de- 
scribed, instead  of  turning  again,  and  the  next  colour  is  to  be 
introduced  between. 

TAMBOUR-WORK. 

Another  kind  of  Embroidery  is  executed  at  the  tambour,  which 
is  a  frame  resembling  a  hoop,  over  which  the  material  is  placed; 
another  hoop,  made  to  fit,  is  passed  over  it:  both  hoops  being 
covered  with  woollen  cloth;  and  the  work  is  strained  tight  between 
them.  The  hoop  is  then  placed  in  an  horizontal  position,  between 
two  upright  supports,  fixed  in  a  stand,  and,  when  in  use,  placed 


300  EMBROIDERY. 

on  a  table.  For  large  subjects,  a  square  frame  is  used,  the  four 
sides  of  which  separate,  and  which,  having  a  number  of  holes  near 
their  ends,  are  united  by  moveable  pegs,  according  to  the  size 
required.  This  frame  rests  on  a  stand,  at  a  convenient  height 
from  the  ground.  The  tambour-needle  is  a  small  steel  instrument 
fixed  in  an  ivory  handle,  and  has  a  small  notch  near  its  point, 
which  answers  the  purpose  of  a  hook ;  and,  in  working,  the  right 
hand,  which  directs  the  tambour-needle,  will  always  be  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  work;  and  the  left  hand,  which  supplies  the 
worsted,  or  cotton,  on  the  lower  side.  The  principal  materials  on 
which  Tambour-work  is  employed,  are  muslin  and  net,  and  the 
Embroidery  is  generally  done  in  coloured  crewels,  white  twisted 
cotton,  or  gold  thread.  The  design  is  previously  drawn  on  the 
material  or  ground  with  indigo,  which  will  afterwards  wash  out. 
If  it  be  intended  to  work  in  crewels,  a  coloured  pattern  will  also-be 
of  service,  as  a  guide  to  the  selection  of  the  worsteds,  which  are 
usually  worked  into  very  beautiful  groups  or  wreaths  of  flowers, 
in  their  natural  colours,  principally  for  the  bottoms  of  dresses. 

In  working,  the  needle  is  passed  through  the  muslin,  from  the 
upper  side;  the  worsted,  or  cotton,  being  held  underneath,  is 
placed  on  the  hook,  and  drawn  through,  so  as  to  form  a  loop  on 
the  surface.  The  needle  is  then  passed  through  that  loop,  and 
also  through  the  muslin,  at  a  few  threads'  distance;  a  second  loop 
is  then  drawn  up  through  the  first;  a  third  loop  through  the 
second;  and  thus  the  work  is  continued.  In  a  narrow  or  pointed 
leaf,  it  is  usual  to  work  its  complete  outline  first,  passing  up  one 
side  and  down  the  other,  and  filling  up  the  middle  with  succeeding 
rows.  In  a  round  or  oval  leaf,  the  stitches  should  begin  at  the 
outside,  and  form  one  row  within  another,  terminating  in  the  centre. 
Stalks  are  worked  in  single  or  double  rows,  as  the  thickness  in  the 
pattern  may  require.  Small  sprigs  are  sometimes  thus  embroU 
dered  in  gold  thread  on  India  muslin,  for  ladies'  headdresses. 

PRINT-WORK. 

Print-work,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  dotted  and  line 
engraving,  is  principally  applicable  to  small  subjects,  on  account 
of  the  minuteness  of  the  stitches  employed.  The  design  is  sketched, 
in  pencil,  on  white  silk,  or  satin,  previously  stitched  on  a  frame, 
as  before  described.  It  is  worked  with  a  very  fine  needle,  in 
black  silk,  or  in  silk  of  different  shades,  from  a  jet  black  through 
all  the  gradations  of  a  lead  hue,  to  the  palest  slate-colour. 


EMBROIDERY.  301 

Imitations  of  dotted  engravings  are  worked  in  small  stitches 
(similar  to  the  first  stitch  in  marking,)  set  exceedingly  thick; 
beginning  with  the  darkest  parts  in  black  silk,  and  gradually  work- 
ing towards  the  lighter  parts  with  silks  of  appropriate  hues; 
blending  them  into  each  other,  by  setting  the  dark  stitches  wider 
apart,  where  it  is  requisite  to  change  the  shade;  and  working 
those  of  the  next  tint  into  the  intervals  thus  left.  It  is  necessary 
to  place  the  engraving  constantly  in  view,  as  a  guide  for  the  lights 
and  shades. 

Subjects  in  imitation  of  line-engraving  are  worked  for  rather 
more  distant  effect  than  those  we  have  just  described.  The  same 
fine  silks  are  used,  but  the  stitches  must  be  longer,  and  set  rather 
apart  from  each  other,  according  to  the  lines  in  the  original. 

WORSTED-WORK. 

Worsted-work,  on  canvass,  is  a  subordinate  description  of  Em- 
broidery. It  is  applied  to  the  production  of  rugs  for  urns,  covers 
of  ottomans,  bell-pulls,  and  many  other  elegant  articles.  The 
outline  of  the  pattern  is  sketched,  with  a  pen,  on  canvass,  strained 
in  the  middle  of  a  frame 

In  working  a  rug,  it  is  usual  to  commence  with  the  centre, 
which  is  done  in  tent-stitch,  or  as  the  first  stitch  in  marking. 
The  worsted  is  brought  from  underneath,  and  passed  down  again, 
in  an  angular  direction,  over  the  next  cross-thread  of  the  canvass. 
It  is  to  be  particularly  observed,  that  all  the  stitches  must  go  in 
one  direction ;  the  colours  of  the  worsted  should  be  selected  to 
imitate  the  various  tints,  as  in  a  painting  of  the  same  subject. 
The  whole  of  the  ground  is  to  be  filled  up  in  the  same  sort  of 
stitch  as  that  adopted  for  the  centre,  with  white  glazed  cotton, 
worsted,  or  silk.  When  the  work  is  removed  from  the  frame,  it 
is  advisable  to  tack  a  piece  of  paper  over  the  centre,  in  order  to 
keep  it  clean,  during  the  working  of  the  border,  which  is  formed 
by  long  loops,  in  a  cross-stitch,  on  the  canvass,  taken  over  a  flat 
ivory  mesh-stick.  The  border  is  usually  done  in  a  scroll  pattern, 
shaded  tufts,  or  shades  of  colours  in  lines.  When  finished,  each 
loop  is  cut  with  a  pair  of  scissors ;  the  rug  is  then  laid  flat  on  a 
table,  and  the  surface  cropped  smooth.  It  should  be  beaten  with 
a  little  cane  to  clear  out  all  the  small  loose  fibres  of  worsted ;  and 
may  be  lined,  at  the  back,  with  glazed  cambric,  or  baize. 

Ottomans,  or  foot-stools,  are  worked  all  over  exactly  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  centre  of  a  rug. 


302  EMBROIDERY. 

Bell-pulls  are  also  worked  with  the  same  worsteds,  and  in  the 
same  stitch  as  rugs;  usually  in  a  running-pattern  of  flowers,  on 
a  strip  of  canvass,  of  a  proper  length,  which  may  be  bought,  with 
a  selvage  on  each  side,  adapted  to  this  peculiar  purpose.  The 
ground  is  generally  filled  up  with  a  colour  that  harmonizes  with 
the  curtains-,  or  other  decorations,  of  the  room  for  which  the  bell- 
pulls  are  intended.  The  edge  is  either  finished  by  a  binding  of 
velvet,  or  worked  in  a  sloping  direction,  so  as  to  cover  about 
three  threads  of  the  margin  of  the  canvass,  and  forming  a  satin- 
stitch.  The  top  of  the  bell-ribbon  is  finished  with  a  tuft,  worked 
on  a  round  piece  of  canvass,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  border  of 
a  rug;  it  is  afterwards  tacked  on  a  circular  piece  of  pasteboard. 

Paper  patterns,  covered  with  black  cross  lines,  to  represent 
the  threads  of  canvass,  and  painted  on  the  squares,  in  the  proper 
colours,  may  be  bought  at  the  worsted  shops:  but  in  working 
from  these  patterns,  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  cross-stitch,  which 
is  taken  in  an  angular  direction  over  two  threads  of  the  canvass, 
and  then  crossed  in  the  same  way.  The  pattern  is  not  to  be  tacked 
to  the  canvass,  but  merely  placed  in  view,  as  a  copy.  The  centre 
of  the  middle  flower,  or  ornament,  is  to  be  first  ascertained,  and 
the  coloured  squares  in  the  pattern  counted  from  it,  as  a  guide  for 
the  number  of  stitches  to  be  taken  in  each  colour  on  the  canvass. 


EMBROIDERY  ON  MUSLIN. 

White  Embroidery  comprises  the  art  of  working  flowers,  and 
other  ornamental  designs,  on  muslin,  for  dresses,  or  their  trim- 
mings ;  capes,  collars,  handkerchiefs,  &c. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  cotton  proper  for  this  work :  that  which 
is  most  generally  used,  because  it  washes  the  best,  is  the  dull 
cotton ;  sometimes  called  Trafalgar,  or  Indian.  The  other  sort  is 
the  glazed,  or  English  cotton,  and  is  only  proper  to  be  used  on 
thin  muslin;  although  it  looks  infinitely  the  more  beautiful  of  the 
two,  previously  to  its  being  washed,  yet  that  operation  destroys 
its  beauty,  and  removes  all  its  gloss;  nor  is  it  so  smooth  and 
pleasant  to  use  as  the  other.  Patterns  for  working  may  be  pur- 
chased at  most  of  the  fancy-shops ;  but  ladies  possessing  a  taste 
for  drawing,  may  design  their  own  subjects,  by  making  sketches 
on  paper,  in  pencil,  and  afterwards  going  over  them  again  with 
ink.  A  pattern  may  be  copied,  by  placing  a  thin  piece  of  paper 
over  the  original,  and  tracing  it  through,  against  a  window.  The 
outline  of  a  subject  already  worked,  if  of  a  thick,  rich  description, 


EMBROIDERY. 


303 


may  be  obtained  by  laying  the  muslin  on  a  table,  placing  a  piece 
of  white  paper  over  it,  and  rubbing  the  paper  with  a  nutmeg, 
partly  grated:  this  outline  may,  afterwards,  be  perfected  with  a 
pen. 

The  paper  pattern  for  a  running  design  of  flowers,  foliage,  &c. 
should  be   from   twelve  to  eighteen   inches  long,  in  proportion  to 

its  breadth,  and  shifted 
along  the  muslin  as  the 
work  proceeds.  As  this 
sort  of  pattern  is  liable  to 
be  soon  damaged,  it  is 
advisable  to  strengthen  it 
by  a  lining  of  cambric- 
muslin.  The  pattern  for 
a  cape  of  a  dress  is  usually 
of  the  size  of  the  intended 
cape ;  but  a  sketch  of  one- 
half  of  the  pattern  (Fig.  2) 
may  be  made  to  answer 
the  purpose  equally  well, 
by  retracing  the  design  on 
the  other  side  of  the  paper, 
against  a  window,  and 
when  half  the  cape  is 
worked,  turning  the  pat- 
tern over  to  the  other  side;  in  this  case  the  half-pattern  must 
terminate  exactly  at  the  middle,  or  half  of  the  work.  The  muslin, 
cambric-muslin,  or  French  cambric,  intended  to  be  worked,  must 
be  smoothly  and  evenly  tacked  on  the  pattern,  so  as  to  prevent 
its  getting  out  of  place;  the  stems,  and  external  edges  of  leaves, 
flowers,  or  ornaments,  must  then  be  traced, 
by  running  them  round  with  cotton  (Fig.  3)  : 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  their 
shape  and  form  accurately,  as  a  fault  in  this 
stage  of  the  work  is  not  easily  remedied 
afterwards.  In  working  the  bottom  of  a 
dress,  flounce,  cape,  or  collar,  the  edge  of 
the  pattern,  which  is  usually  a  running  scallop, 
a  series  of scallops,form ing  larger  ones  (Fig.  4,) 
a  vandyke,  or  a  chain,  should  be  done  first. 
The  best  and  strongest  way  of  working  this 
is  in  the  stitch  used  for  button-hole  work.  The  stalks, 
26 


part, 


304 


EMBROIDERY. 


leading  to  leaves,  or  flowers,  having  been  run  round  as  directed, 
must  next  be  sewn  over  tolerably  thick  (Fig.  4.)  Where  it  appears 
desirable  to  thicken  a  stem,  or  any  oilier  part  of  the  outline,  a 
piece  of  the  cotton  should  be  laid  along 
the  running  thread,  and  both  be  sewn 
over  together.  Leaves,  or  flowers,  are 
worked  in  what  is  called  satin-stitch 
(from  the  length  of  the  stitches  resem- 
bling the  threads  in  satin):  but  great 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  stitches  do 
H  not  lie  over  each  other,  but  are  evenly 
ranged  side  by  side  (vide  Figs  4.)  Flowers,  or  stars,  worked  in 
fine  worsted,  or  crewel,  of  various  colours,  may  be  used,  with 
very  good  effect,  in  satin-stitch.  The  work  should  be  slightly 
pressed  with  the  finger,  now  and  then,  to  assist  in  keeping  it  in 
shape. 

Round  eyelet  holes,  or  oval  ones,  in  a  circle,  like  a  star,  or 
the  head  of  a  flower,  are  sometimes  introduced.  These  are  first 
run  round;  then  a  very  little  bit  of  the  muslin  is  cut  out  in  the 
shape  of  the  intended  hole,  but  much  smaller,  and  sewn  thickly 
round ;  the  needle  being  run  through 
the  centre,  and  passed  under  the  running 
thread  (Fig.  5.)  A  leaf,  or  the  head 
of  a  flower,  is  formed,  occasionally,  by 
placing  a  piece  of  thread-net  on  the 
muslin,  then  running  it  round  in  the 
pattern  required,  and  covering  the  run- 
ning thread  in  button-hole  stitch,  or 
thick  sewing:  the  outer  part  of  the 
thread-net  is  then  cut  off  with  fine- 
pointed  scissors;  and  the  muslinj  under  the  net,  cut  out  in  the 
same  way,  when  removed  from  the  paper  pattern  (Fig.  5.) 

The  middle  of  a  flower  is  sometimes  ornamented  by  the  intro- 
duction of  very  beautiful  open  work,  in  imitation  of  antique  Lace; 
but  the  various  kinds  of  stitch  requisite,  and  the  mode  of  using 
them,  are  so  complex  and  intricate,  that  a  practical  description  is 
scarcely  possible;  and  nothing  but  personal  instruction  can  pro- 
perly convey  a  perfect  knowledge  of  their  application.  We  shall, 
however,  endeavour  to  illustrate  the  subject,  by  an  engraving  of  a 
fancy  sprig  of  leaves  and  flowers,  in  the  style  of  rich  Antique 
Lace  Embroidery,  and  attempt  to  convey  a  general  idea  of  a 
few  of  the  stitches  used;  of  which,  sixteen  distinct  kinds  are 


EMBROIDERY.  305 

comprised  in  this  pattern  (Fig.  6.)  Several  portions  of  the  leaves 
and  flowers  are  shown  on  a  larger  scale,  with  references  to  the 
various  stitches  of  which  they  are  composed,  in  Figs.  7,  8,  9,  &  10. 


The  stalk  is  composed  of  rows  of  eyelet  holes,  which  are  an 
agreeable  variation  from  the  usual  mode  of  sewing  steins.  The 
running-thread,  which  first  formed  the  outline,  is  withdrawn; 
and  the  slight  marks  left  in  the  muslin,  serve  as  a  guide  for  further 
operations.  Four  threads  of  the  muslin  are  taken  on  the  needle, 
and  sewn  over  three  times;  the  needle  being  passed  through  the 
same  places  each  time,  and  the  four  threads  drawn  tightly  together. 
The  next  four  threads,  higher  on  the  line,  are  then  taken  up  and 
sewn  over,  as  the  last ;  thus,  a  series  of  bars  is  formed, — the  thread 
passing,  alternately,  on  the  right  side  and  on  the  left,  from  one  bar 
to  another:  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  it  at  the  side,  and  not  to  let 
it  run  across  the  apertures.  Having  proceeded  the  intended  length 
of  the  stalk,  the  sides  of  the  holes  must  be  sewn  down ;  the  needle 


306 


EMBROIDERY. 


being  passed  through  each  aperture  three  times,  including,  within 
the  sewing,  the  alternate  threads  before  mentioned  as  running 
between  the  bars. 

The  outline  of  the  leaves,  in  feather-stitch  (Fig.  7,)  being  run 
round,  each  separate  leaf  is  done  with  fine  glazed 
cotton,  in  an  elongated  button-hole  stitch,  from 
the  centre  vein  to  its  outer  edge,  the  stitch 
being  gradually  shortened  towards  the  points: 
the  threads  of  the  muslin  will  thus  be  divided 
in  a  line  up  the  middle,  which  must  be  filled 
up  in  glover's-stitch ;  this  resembles  the  button- 
hole stitch,  except  that  each  stitch  is  taken  a  little 
higher  up  than  the  preceding  one.  The  outer  edge,  and  the  out- 
line of  the  separate  parts  of  the  leaf  (Fig.  8,)  comprising  a  variety 
of  stitches,  are  run  round;  the  right- 
hand  edge  of  the  leaf  is  composed,  alter- 
nately, of  feather-stitch,  and  a  pattern 
worked,  with  glazed  cotton,  in  double 
button-hole  stitch,  in  which  two  stitches 
are  taken,  side  by  side;  then  an  equal 
space  is  left,  and  two  more  are  taken ; 
and  thus  to  the  end.  The  next  row  is 
formed  by  placing  similar  stitches  under 
the  alternate  spaces  left  above,  taking 
in,  each  time,  the  threads  which  run 
between  each  pair  of  stitches.  The 
parts  (opposite  a  d)  are  done  in  half- 
herring-bone  stitch,  the  cross  way  of  the 
muslin ;  four  threads  being  taken  on  the 
needle  at  a  time.  In  forming  the  second, 
and  succeeding  rows,  the  needle  passes 
through  the  lower  side  of  the  first  row 
of  apertures.  The  ground  (6)  is  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  lines,  each  formed 
by  drawing  together,  and  sewing  over 
very  closely  with  fine  thread,  six  threads 
of  the  muslin.  Square  spots  are  formed  in  the  spaces,  by  sewing, 
in  glazed  cotton,  over  eight  of  the  cross  threads; — passing  the 
needle,  alternately,  over  the  first  four,  and  under  the  second 
four.  The  large  rosette  (c)  is  worked  in  feather-stitch.  All 
the  other  stitches  used  in  this  leaf  are  described  in  the  succeeding 
flowers. 


EMBROIDERY. 


307 


The  cup  (a)  of  the  fancy  flower  (Fig.  9,)  is  done  in  feather-stitch. 
The  centre  is  a  series  of  eyelet  holes,  formed  by  passing  the 
needle  twice  through  the  same  hole  ;  then 
repeating  the  same  process  at  the  dis- 
tance of  four  threads;  and  so,  in  suc- 
cession, to  the  end  of  the  row.  The 
second  row  is  formed  at  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  holes  of  the  first  row,  with 
four  threads  between  each,  as  before,  so 
that  the  holes  of  each  row  are  perfected 
in  the  following  row.  The  part  (6)  is 
done  in  half-herring-bone  stitch,  leaving 
four  threads  of  the  muslin  between  each 
row;  (c)  is  formed  by  drawing  together, 
and  sewing  over  tightly,  four  threads  of  the  muslin  between  each 
row;  (d)  is  worked  in  double-button-hole  stitch;  (e)  is  the  same 
as  the  centre,  with  spots  in  satin-stitch.  The  centre  of  the  fancy 
flower  (Fig.  10,)  is  in  half-herring-bone  stitch,  worked  in  glazed 
cotton.  The  small  eyelet  holes  (a)  are  formed  by  taking  up  two 
threads  of  the  muslin  all  round  ;  by  the  sides  of  them  is  a  stitch  like 
the  cross-stitch  in  marking,  and  a  short 
stitch  passes  over  each  end  of  the  thread, 
forming  the  cross;  then  follows  another 
eyelet  hole  and  a  cross,  and  the  subse- 
quent rows  are  done  in  a  similar  manner: 
—  the  eyelet  holes  in  each  line  being  inva- 
riably placed  under  the  crosses  of  the 
line  above.  The  series  of  holes  (6)  is 
formed  by  sewing  over  four  threads  in  a 
cross  direction  of  the  muslin,  then  pass- 
ing to  the  next  four,  and  thus  till  the 
line  is  finished;  the  following  rows  are 
done  in  the  same  manner,  until  all  the  space  is  filled;  the  holes 
are  then  sewn  over  in  a  similar  way,  but  in  the  contrary  di- 
rection. At  (c)  six  cross-threads  of  the  muslin  are  drawn  together 
by  passing  the  needle  underneath,  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and 
then  in  contrary  directions,  thus  forming  a  little  spot.  The  part 
(d)  is  formed  by  sewing  over  four  threads  of  the  straight  way  of 
the  muslin,  and  leaving  four  threads  between  each  stitch;  the 
game  line  is  sewn  back  again,  so  as  to  form  a  cross  over  the  top. 

These  stitches  are  susceptible  of  an  endless  variety  of  changes, 
by  introducing  spots,  bars,  or  cross  lines,  in  satin-stitch;    and  in 


OF 

TTNIVERSITY 


308  EMBROIDERY. 

the  half-herring-bone  stitch,  by  changing  the  direction  of  the 
threads,  or  leaving  spaces,  as  fancy  may  dictate.  The  use  of 
glazed  cotton,  instead  of  fine  thread,  will  also  give  a  very  different 
effect  to  the  same  stitch.  The  edge  of  each  flower,  and  of  each 
compartment  of  a  flower,  is  to  be  sewn  closely  over  with  glazed 
cotton.  It  is  not  expected  that  these  imitations  of  Antique  Lace- 
work  should  be  practised  on  the  extended  scale  here  described: 
the  separate  stitches  may,  however,  be  introduced,  as  taste  may 
direct,  to  fill  up  the  centres  of  modern  flowers,  or  fancy  leaves. 

Muslin,  worked  with  glazed  cotton,  was  formerly  called  Dres- 
den-work, but  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  Moravian,  from  its 
production  having  formed  the  principal  employment  of  a  religious 
sect,  called  the  Moravian  Sisters,  which  originated  in  Germany, 
and  some  of  whose  establishments  exist  in  this  country:  the 
shops,  in  London,  called  Moravian-warehouses,  were,  originally, 
opened  for  the  sale  of  their  work ;  though  they  are  now  become 
ordinary  depots  for  the  various  kinds  of  Fancy  Embroidery,  pro- 
duced by  the  immense  numbers  of  young  females,  who,  in  this 
country,  derive  their  maintenance  from  the  ever-varying  use  of 
the  needle. 

Strips  of  work  intended  for  insertion  in  plain  muslin,  or  lace, 
should  have  a  row  of  hem-stitch  on  each  side,  which  is  thus  pro- 
duced:— A  margin  of  the  muslin  is  left  on  the  sides  of  the  pattern, 
sufficiently  broad  to  wrap  over  the  finger;  at  a  few  threads  dis- 
tance from  the  work,  on  each  side,  threads  are  drawn  out  to  the 
width  of  a  narrow  hem ;  and  three  or  four  threads,  which  cross 
the  space  thus  formed,  are  taken  upon  the  needle  (beginning  at 
one  side  of  the  space,)  and  sewn  over,  with  very  fine  cotton,  about 
three  times,  when  the  thread  will  have  reached  the  other  side; 
at  which  point  three  or  four  more  of  the  cross-threads  are  to  be 
added,  and  the  whole  sewn  twice  over,  so  as  to  tie  the  six  or  eight 
together  at  that  side:  the  last  number  taken  up  must  be  then 
sewn  over  three  times,  as  the  first;  by  this  time  the  thread  will 
have  reached  the  side  from  which  it  first  proceeded ;  fresh  threads 
are  then  added,  and  tied,  each  time,  at  the  sides, 
as  before ;  and  so  on,  from  side  to  side,  to  the  end. 
Three  or  four  threads  are  to  be  taken  at  a  time, 
according  to  the  width  of  the  space  formed  by 
drawing  the  threads  out.  The  whole  hem-stitch, 
when  completed,  forms  a  sort  of  zig-zag  (Fig.  11.) 
The  muslin  is  joined,  by  its  outer  margin,  to  whatever  article  of 
dress  it  is  intended  to  adorn. 


EMBROIDERY. 


309 


Another  species  of  hem-stitch  is  called  Veining,  and  is  intro- 
duced to  give  the  same  appearance  as  the  regular  hem-stitch,  in 
curved,  or  other  positions,  which  would  not  admit  of  drawing  the 
threads  out  (Fig.  12.)  It  is  done  on  the  angular  direction,  or 
bias  of  the  muslin,  by  sewing  over  two  threads  of 
the  muslin  one  way,  then  taking  up  two  threads  of 
the  contrary  way,  tying  them  together  at  one  side, 
as  directed  in  the  straight  hem-stitch ;  then  sewing 
over  the  latter  two  threads  twice;  after  crossing 
to  the  opposite  side,  two  more  are  sewn  over;  and 
so  in  continuity,  according  to  the  direction  required. 
Cambric  pocket-handkerchiefs  are  generally  ornamented  with 
a  row  of  hem-stitch,  bordered  by  a  broad  hem,  or  with  the  outer 
edges  scalloped,  and  a  small  pattern  embroidered  in  each  scallop. 
It  is  fashionable  to  have  the  corners  embellished  with  a  fancy  sprig, 
and,  frequently,  with  a  different  pattern  in 
each.  Embroidered  initials  and  crests,  in 
one  corner,  have  a  very  beautiful  effect: 
they  are  usually  surrounded  by  a  wreath  of 
laurel,  or  some  fancy  device,  in  which  the 
leaves  and  stem  are  worked  in  satin- 
stitch,  relieved  by  a  row  of  eyelet  holes. 
In  working  the  letters,  which  are  also  in 
satin-stitch,  great  care  and  delicacy  are 
required,  to  preserve  their  proper  shape, 
by  lengthening  or  shortening  the  stitches, 
so  as  to  correspond  with  the  varying 
breadth  of  the  written  characters  in  the 
pattern.  A  coronet,  or  crest,  may  be  worked  in  satin-stitch,  varied 
with  eyelet  holes,  or  any  other  appropriate  stitch,  according  to  the 
subject.  (Fig.  13.) 

LACE-WORK. 

The  making  of  lace  is  not  now  among  the  pursuits  of  ladies ; 
it  will,  therefore,  be  unnecessary  to  enter  into  its  details:  in  a 
previous  part  of  this  article,  however,  we  have  given  such  general 
information  on  the  subject,  as  will,  probably,  have  proved  in- 
teresting. The  only  branch  of  Lace-work  which  seems  to  come 
within  our  plan,  is  Embroidery  on  Net,  in  imitation  of  Brussels 
point-lace,  which,  for  veils,  dresses,  or  their  trimmings,  is  very 
beautiful  in  its  effect,  and,  perhaps,  exceeds  in  delicacy  every 
other  branch  of  White  Embroidery. 


310 


EMBROIDERY. 


Embroidery  on  Net  is  performed  by  placing  a  piece  of  French 
cambric,  of  a  size  proportioned  to  the  subject,  over  the  net,  and 
the  paper-pattern  under  both.  Then  the 
design  (of  which  each  particular  leaf,  or 
sprig,  ought  to  be  very  small,  though  the 
clusters  should  be  large)  must  be  run  twice 
round  with  cotton,  the  running  thread  sewn 
over  pretty  closely  with  rather  finer  cotton, 
and  the  external  edges  of  the  cambric  cut 
neatly  and  closely  off  (Fig.  14.)  In  de- 
signing a  veil,  a  small  running  pattern, 
worked  quite  at  the  edge,  is  proper;  and, 
when  completed,  a  pearling  (which  is  a  species  of  lace-edging,  to 
be  had  at  the  lace-shops)  should  be  sewn  round  the  outside,  to 
give  it  a  finish:  on  the  lower  part  of  the  veil,  within  the  running 
border,  there  should  be  a  handsome  pattern  worked  across.  This 
style  is  very  easy  of  execution,  and  is  an 
excellent  imitation  of  what  it  is  intended 
to  represent.  Net  is  also  worked  by 
running  the  outline  of  leaves  and  flowers 
with  glazed  cotton,  darning  inside  the 
running  with  fine  cotton,  doubled,  and 
filling  up  the  centre  of  the  flower  with 
half-herring-bone  stitch,  from  one  side 
to  the  other  (Fig.  15.)  Instead  of  darning 
within  the  flower,  chain-stitch  is  sometimes  introduced,  and  which 
is  thus  performed: — Having  secured  the  cotton,  one  thread  of  the 
net  is  taken  up,  and  the  cotton  being  held  down  by  the  left  thumb, 
the  first  stitch  is  taken,  as  in  button-hole  work,  leaving  a  loop, 
through  which  the  needle  is  passed,  to  form  a 
second  stitch  or  loop,  and  so  on,  after  the 
manner  of  a  chain ;  until,  having  arrived  at 
the  extremity  of  a  leaf  or  flower,  the  cotton 
is  turned  round  and  worked  back,  until  the 
whole  space  is  covered  (Fig.  16.)  An  agree- 
able variety  may  be  introduced  among  the 
flowers,  by  filling  up  their  centres  in  a  stitch 
formed  by  sewing  over  two  threads  across  the 
space;  then  leaving  one  row  of  threads,  and 
taking  up  the  next  two,  until  the  interior  is  completely  occupied. 
This  kind  of  stitch  may  be  varied  by  crossing  it  with  the  same 
stitch.  Small  clusters  of  spots,  on  net,  are  very  pretty:  each  spot 


EMBROIDERY.  311 

is  formed  by  passing  the  needle  backwards  and  forwards  through 
one  mesh,  and,  alternately,  over  and  under  two  of  the  threads, 
n  forming  that  mesh ,  which  are  opposite  to  each  other 

(Fig.  17,  a.)  Sprigs,  or  branches,  formed  by  eyelet 
holes,  either  singly  along  a  stem,  or  in  clusters  of 
three,  afford  a  pleasing  variation  (Fig.  17,6.)  The 
eyelet  holes  are  worked  in  button -hole  stitch ;  one 
mesh  of  the  net  being  left  open  for  the  centre. 
Book-muslin  is  sometimes  worked  into  net,  by  placing  it 
under  the  net,  and  both  over  a  paper  pattern;  the  outline,  is 
then  run  round:  the  running  is  either  sewn  over,  or  worked  in 
button-hole  stitch,  and  the  external  edge  of  the  muslin  cut  off. 
This  mode  is  not  confined  to  small  patterns,  as  the  cambric  or 
net  which  is  intended  to  resemble  Brussels  point-lace. 


GOLD-THREAD  EMBROIDERY. 

This,  in  splendour  and  richness,  far  exceeds  every  other  species 
of  Embroidery,  and  is  principally  used  in  court  dresses,  and  for 
the  ball-room.  It  is  practised  on  crape,  India  muslin,  or  silk; 
and,  principally,  in  large  and  bold  designs.  The  gold  thread  should 
be  fine ;  and  it  may  be  worked  with  nearly  the  same  facility  as  any 
other  thread.  Where  the  material  is  sufficiently  transparent,  a 
paper  pattern  is  placed  underneath;  the  outline  is  run  in  white 
thread;  and  the  subject  is  then  worked  with  gold  thread,  in 
satin-stitch.  For  a  thin  stalk  to  a  flower,  the  running-thread 
should  be  omitted,  and  gold  thread  laid  on  the  material,  and  sewn 
slightly  over  with  another  gold  thread ;  thus  giving  the  stalk  a 
very  pretty  spiral  appearance.  In  embroidering  a  thick  material, 
the  design  is  to  be  sketched  with  a  black-lead  pencil,  if  the  ground 
be  light;  or  with  a  white  chalk  pencil,  if  dark.  The  pattern  is  fre- 
quently varied  by  the  introduction  of  short  pieces  of  fine  gold 
bullion;  sometimes  two  or  three  of  them  coming  out  of  the  cup  of 
a  flower;  the  stitch  passes  lengthwise  through  the  twist  of  the 
bullion,  thus  confining  it  flat.  The  centre  of  a  flower  may  be  also 
finished  with  bullion:  in  that  case,  the  stitch  taken  should  be 
shorter  than  the  piece  of  bullion ;  the  under-side  of  which  will, 
therefore,  be  compressed,  and  the  upper-side  expanded,  so  as  to 
give  it  a  little  prominence. 

Gold  spangles  may  be  occasionally  introduced ;  and  they  should 
be  secured  by  bringing  the  thread  from  beneath,  passing  it  through 


312 


EMBROIDERY. 


the  spangle,  then  through  a  very  short  bit  of  bullion,  and  back 
through  the  hole  in  the  centre  of  the  spangle :  this  is  better  than 
sewing  the  spangle  on  with  a  thread  across  its  face. 

Gold-thread  flowers  on  tulle  form  a  beautiful  Embroidery,  and 
are  worked  in  the  same  way  as  the  thread  net  represented  in 
Fig.  15.  This  material  may  also  be  worked  in  gold-thread  satin- 
stitch,  or  at  the  tambour.  The  whole  of  this  kind  of  Embroidery 
is  also  worked  in  silver  thread. 

There  is  a  beautiful  variety  produced  by  the  introduction  of 
flos  silk,  worked  in  satin-stitch,  in  any  one  colour  that  will  har- 
monize with  the  gold  or  silver  thread.  The  effect  of  green  flos 
with  gold  thread,  is  particularly  good,  when  tastefully  arranged: — 
as,  for  the  lower  part  of  a  dress,  in  the  combination  of  a  wreath  of 
the  shamrock  in  green  flos  silk,  entwined  with  roses,  or  other 
flowers,  in  gold  or  silver  thread. 


THE  ESCRUTOIRE. 


For  careless  scrawls  ye  boant  of  no  pretence  ; 
Fair  Russell  wrote,  as  well  as  spoke,  with  sense.. 

ARIOUS  are  the  occasions  on  which  ladies  are 
called  upon  to  exercise  their  skill  in  the  art  of 
epistolary  composition:  this,  generally  speak- 
ing, is  the  only  style  of  writing  of  which  they 
will  find  it  inconvenient  to  be  ignorant.  Few 
persons  are  ever  obliged  to  produce  a  treatise, 
or  a  poem ;  but  there  is  scarcely  any  one  who 
is  not  occasionally  compelled,  by  the  circumstances  of  life,  to 
write  a  letter.  It  is  the  remark  of  a  very  celebrated  author,  that 
the  epistolary  style  deserves  to  be  cultivated  almost  more  than 
any  other,  since  none  is  of  more  various  or  frequent  use  through 
the  whole  subordination  of  human  life.  Another  writer  on  this 
subject,  very  justly  observes,  that  among  the  various  parts  of 
learning,  in  which  young  persons  are  initiated,  there  are  some, 
which,  though  they  amuse  the  imagination,  and  furnish  the  mind 
with  employment  in  solitude  and  leisure,  yet  are  found  to  be  of 
little  actual  utility  in  the  common  intercourse  of  life;  but  the 
ability  of  writing  letters  clearly,  and  to  the  purpose,  finds  an 
opportunity  of  frequent  exertion  and  display  in  every  department 
of  business,  in  every  profession  and  employment,  and  in  all  the 
endearing  offices  of  social  relation.  Most  authors,  who  have  occu- 
pied themselves  with  this  subject,  admit  the  difficulty, — or,  rather, 


314  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

the  impossibility, — of  reducing  it  to  any  fixed  rules ;  as  letters  are 
written  on  all  subjects,  and  in  almost  every  situation  in  which 
"  the  tide  of  events"  can  carry  individuals.  The  general  rules 
which  govern  other  styles  of  composition,  are,  for  the  most  part, 
applicable  to  letter-writing:  ease  an  1  simplicity,  an  even  flow  ol 
unlaboured  diction,  and  an  artless  arrangement  of  obvious  senti- 
ments, have  been  pronounced  to  be  the  qualities  most  frequently 
required ;  but  it  has  also  been  stated,  that  a  letter,  having  no 
peculiarity  but  its  form,  nothing  is  to  be  refused  admission  to  it 
which  would  be  proper  in  any  other  mode  of  treating  the  same 
subject.  This  observation  requires  to  be  qualified;  at  least,  as  to 
the  manner  of  using  what  is  admitted.  Brevity  is  often  an  object 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  epistolary  style ;  and  that  which 
it  may  be  proper  to  elaborate  in  other  modes  of  treating  a  subject, 
it  is  necessary  to  condense  in  a  letter:  the  same  arguments  and 
expressions,  also,  which  would  be  proper  in  a  statement,  or  ap- 
peal to  the  public,  might  be  indecorous  if  addressed  to  an  indi 
vidual. 

Although  it  may  not  be  in  her  power  to  offer  a  complete  serier» 
of  rules  for  epistolary  correspondence,  the  writer  of  this  article 
ventures  to  hope,  that  she  may  be  enabled,  in  the  course  of  the 
following  pages,  to  make  some  observations,  which  will  be  founc 
of  considerable  benefit ;  at  least  to  the  younger  and  more  inex- 
perienced portion  of  her  readers. 

A  correspondence  between  two  persons,  is  simply  a  conver- 
sation reduced  to  writing;  in  which  one  party  says  all  that  she 
has  to  communicate,  replies  to  preceding  inquiries,  and,  in  her 
turn,  proposes  questions,  without  interruption  by  the  other ;  who 
takes  precisely  the  same  course  in  her  answer.  We  should  write 
to  an  absent  person,  as  we  would  speak  to  the  same  party  if 
present.  To  a  superior  we  ought  to  be  respectful;  to  a  parent, 
dutiful  and  affectionate;  to  a  friend,  frank  and  easy;  and  clear 
and  definite  in  our  expressions  to  all.  Ambiguity,  in  epistolary 
correspondence,  is  a  fault  which  ought,  most  scrupulously,  to  be 
avoided ;  a  word  placed  in  an  improper  part  of  a  sentence, — a 
phrase  that  has  a  double  signification, — a  passage  so  blotted,  or 
ill-written,  as  to  be  unintelligible, — a  careless  mode  of  sealing, 
by  which  a  portion  of  the  manuscript  is  broken,  or  concealed,  will 
often  render  it  necessary  for  the  party  receiving  the  letter  to 
write,  and  she  who  is  guilty  of  the  fault,  to  reply  to  another  epistle 
requiring  the  necessary  explanation.  The  delay  thus  occasioned 
is  often  of  serious  importance:  besides,  the  person  addressed 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  315 

may  conceive  that  she  has  caught  the  import  of  the  doubtful  pas- 
sage, when  the  contrary  may  be  the  fact;  and  thus  the  writer, 
much  to  her  own  detriment,  may  be  misunderstood  on  a  most 
critical  point:  in  fact,  to  be  ambiguous,  or  unintelligible,  is  to  be 
wanting  in  duty  to  ourselves,  and  in  respect  to  those  whom  we 
address. 

Conciseness  is  one  of  the  charms  of  letter-writing:  we  do  not 
mean  to  say  that  a  letter  should  not  contain  sufficient  facts,  ideas, 
and  feelings;  but  they  ought  to  be  as  briefly  expressed  as  per- 
spicuity and  elegance  will  permit.  If  we  incumber  an  idea  with 
verbiage,  it  loses  its  power.  There  are  some  persons  who,  when 
they  express  a  feeling,  or  a  thought,  of  which  simplicity  should  be 
the  charm,  clothe  it  with  all  the  verbal  treasures  they  possess : 
this  is  like  wearing  one's  whole  wardrobe  at  once;  the  figure  is 
lost  in  a  mass  of  drapery.  Lengthened  periods  are  as  much  out 
of  place  in  a  letter  as  they  would  be  in  conversation,  of  which 
letters  may  be  called  the  prototype;  for  they  tire  the  reader  even 
more  than  they  would  the  hearer:  when  written,  their  faults  are 
also  perceived  with  much  less  difficulty  than  when  spoken.  Our 
style,  of  course,  may  rise  with  our  subject:  but  all  parade  of 
words  should  be  dropped  in  a  familiar  epistle.  The  death  of  a 
friend  or  relation,  a  calamity,  or  any  circumstance  of  grave  im- 
portance, should  not  be  communicated  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
trifling  occurrence,  or  even  a  happy  event:  brevity,  in  these  cases, 
is  beauty;  in  those  it  would  be  deemed  unfeeling  and  abrupt. 
"  You  ask  me  to  send  you  news  of  your  favourite  schoolfellow, 
Harriet :— she  is  married."  This  mode  of  communicating  such 
an  event  is  unexceptionable:  but  it  would  be  most  improper  to 
state  the  young  lady's  death  in  the  same  manner;  that  is,  by 
merely  substituting  "dead"  for  "married." 

But  in  aiming  at  the  acquirement  of  an  elegant  and  easy 
brevity,  it  is  incumbent  on  us  at  once  to  avoid  falling  into  a 
rugged,  or  an  enigmatical  style,  and  becoming  so  concise  as  to  be 
unintelligible.  Boileau,  echoing  Horace,  says,  "J'evite  d'e'tre  long, 
et  je  deviens  obscur."  This  is  a  fault  which  must  be  avoided;  it  is 
even  better  to  be  prolix  and  intelligible,  than  brief  and  obscure. 

To  an  absent  friend,  an  elaborate  letter  will  be  most  welcome : 
a  stranger,  a  superior,  or  a  person  of  whom  the  writer  seeks  some- 
thing, will  recoil  from  a  "folio  of  four  pages,"  and,  perhaps,  throw 
it  aside  unread,  or,  at  best,  but  slightly  skimmed  over.  When 
the  party,  to  whom  a  letter  is  addressed,  is  uninterested  in  the 
subject  on  which  it  is  written,  the  writer  of  it  should  display  a 
27 


316  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

brevity,  which  will  attract  attention,  and  insure  a  perusai:  no 
unnecessary  ornament  should  be  used,  nor,  in  fact,  anything  in- 
troduced but  what  is  important  and  bears  strongly  on  the  case 
stated,  or  the  inquiry  made.  All  those  little  personal  details  and 
trifling  circumstance*,  which  are  so  delightful  in  a  letter  from  a 
friend,  would  fatigue  and  disgust  a  stranger,  or  a  superior,  to 
whom  they  are  destitute  of  interest. 

Display  is  a  fault  of  great  weight;  ease  is  the  grace  of  letter- 
writing:  far-fetched  words,  and  studied  phrases,  are  by  no  means 
to  be  accepted  as  legitimate  ornaments  in  the  epistolary  style. 
A  passage  which  is  at  once  brilliant  and  brief,  enriches  a  letter; 
but  it  must  be  artless,  and  appear  to  flow  without  effort  from  the 
writer's  pen, — to  arise  naturally  from  the  subject,  or  the  preced- 
ing passages,  and  not  seem  to  have  cost  any  labour  in  its  production ; 
or  to  be  placed  in  the  position  it  occupies,  simply  because  it  is 
beautiful,  and  not  on  account  of  its  relation  to  its  fellow-phrases. 
There  are  some  persons  who  have  their  pet  expressions,  which 
they  display  as  they  would  their  diamonds  at  dress-parties,  on 
all  great  occasions:  these  expressions  would  be  good,  if  iliey  were  in 
their  proper  places;  but,  on  account  of  their  mis-application,  they 
appear  forced  and  unnatural.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  in- 
tended, that  these  observations  should  be  understood  by  the  reader 
as  warning  her  to  reject  those  ornaments  and  graces  of  language, 
which  embellish  other  styles  of  writing,  when  the  occasion  calls 
for  their  aid.  Dr.  Johnson  observes,  that  "  it  is  natural  to  depart 
from  familiarity  of  language  upon  occasions  not  familiar.  Whatever 
elevates  the  sentiments,  will,  consequently,  raise  the  expression; 
whatever  fills  us  with  hope,  or  terror,  will  produce  perturbation  of 
images,  and  some  figurative  distortions  of  phrase.  Whenever  we 
are  studious  to  please,  we  are  afraid  of  trusting  our  first  thoughts, 
and  endeavour  to  recommend  our  opinion  by  studied  ornaments, 
accuracy  of  method,  and  elegance  of  style.  If  the  personages  of 
the  comic  scene  be  allowed  by  Horace  to  raise  their  language,  in 
the  transports  of  anger,  to  the  turgid  vehemence  of  tragedy,  the 
epistolary  writer  may,  likewise,  without  censure,  comply  with  the 
varieties  of  his  matter.  If  great  events  are  to  be  related,  he  may, 
with  all  the  solemnity  of  an  historian,  deduce  them  from  their 
causes,  connect  them  with  their  concomitants,  and  trace  them  to 
their  consequences.  If  a  disputed  position  is  to  be  established,  or 
a  remote  principle  to  be  investigated,  he  may  detail  his  reasonings 
with  all  the  nicety  of  syllogistic  method.  If  a  measure  is  to  be 
averted,  or  a  benefit  implored,  he  may,  without  any  violation  of 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  317 

the  edicts  of  criticism,  call  every  power  of  rhetoric  to  his  assistance, 
and  try  every  inlet  at  which  love  or  pity  enters  the  heart."  But, 
before  the  letter-writer  follows  this  advice,  it  is  necessary  to  ascer- 
tain the  extent  of  his  powers.  Without  talents  to  support  us  in  a 
splendid  flight,  it  is  better  to  pursue  an  even  course;  without 
judgment  to  select,  and  taste  to  apply  ornaments,  it  is  wise  to 
be  contented  with  simplicity;  lest,  in  this  case,  in  aiming  to  be 
brilliant,  we  become  gaudy  and  ridiculous ;  or  in  that,  while  striving 
to  astonish,  we  become  contemptible,  and  "  rise  like  the  rocket, 
only  to  fall  like  the  stick."  We  should  never  suffer  ourselves  to  be 
seduced  to  adopt  a  fine-sounding  epithet,  unless  we  are  perfectly 
well  acquainted  with  its  meaning ;  or  to  indulge  in  a  simile,  unless 
we  are  capable  of  wielding  it  with  ease.  It  is  dangerous  to  meddle 
with  fine  phrases,  if  we  are  unaccustomed  to  the  manner  of  using 
them.  A  person  who,  by  invariably  keeping  within  the  beaten 
path,  and  never  running  astray  after  "  the  butterflies  of  language," 
had  been  accounted,  by  his  correspondents,  a  plain,  sensible  sort 
of  man,  destroyed  his  reputation  by  a  congratulatory  epistle  on 
a  friend's  marriage,  written  in  a  style  which  he,  doubtless,  con- 
sidered of  great  elevation  and  beauty:  it  was,  on  the  contrary,  in 
the  true  "  Cambyses*  vein."  No  one  had  ever  suspected  him  to 
be  a  blockhead  before;  but  the  letter  in  question  was  evidence 
enough  to  convict  him,  even  in  the  opinions  of  his  most  partial 
friends.  Perhaps  it  is  the  only  one  of  his  epistles  that  has  ever 
been  preserved,  with  the  exception  of  such  as  have  been  kept  as 
documents  in  matters  of  business. 

In  all  epistolary  correspondence,  the  choice  of  embellishments, 
the  language,  subject,  matter  and  manner  in  general,  should,  as 
in  conversation,  be  governed  by  the  relative  situations  in  life,  as 
to  age,  rank,  character,  &c.  of  the  parties  addressed  and  addressing. 
A  lady  neither  writes  nor  speaks  to  a  gentleman  as  she  would  to 
one  of  her  own  sex.  The  language  of  a  mother  to  a  daughter,  is 
very  different  from  that  of  a  daughter  to  her  mother.  In  our 
first  letter  to  a  person,  as  on  our  first  introduction,  we  should 
be  respectful,  and  by  no  means  familiar.  The  distance  which 
either  age,  rank,  sex,  or  any  other  circumstance,  occasions,  ought 
always  to  be  remembered.  We  should  never  forget  what  we  are, 
and  what  the  person  is  whom  we  address.  We  should  say  only 
precisely  what  ought  to  be  said, — to  write,  in  fact,  with  the  same 
restrictions  as  we  would  speak, — to  suppose  the  party  present 
whom  we  address;  and  to  bear  in  mind,  that  our  letters  are,  in 
every  respect,  representatives  of  our  own  persons, — that  they  may 


318  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

be  said  to  speak  for  us;  and  that  an  estimate  of  our  character 
and  manners  is  frequently  formed  from  the  style  and  language  of 
our  epistles. 

How  frequently  do  we  hear  persons  exclaiming,  that  they  do 
not  know  what  to  write  about!  Such  an  observation  is  a  dis- 
grace to  ;he  person  who  makes  it.  Were  the  mother,  the  sister, 
the  cousin,  friend,  or  even  acquaintance,  to  enter  the  room  in 
which  you  are  sitting  at  an  escrutoire,  with  a  blank  sheet  of  paper 
before  you,  would  you  have  nothing  to  say  1  Would  you  have 
nothing  to  communicate'?  Nothing  to  inquire!  No  hitherto-un- 
answered question  to  reply  to? — There  is  but  little  doubt  that  a 
host  of  facts,  feelings,  questions,  and  answers,  would  crowd  to 
your  lips  for  utterance.  But  it  will,  perhaps,  be  observed  by 
some,  that  "  there  is  such  a  difference  between  talking  and  writ- 
ing:"— truly  so;  the  great  difference  is,  thai  in  this,  the  pen, — in 
that,  the  tongue, — is  the  agent  of  expression.  Whatever  we  should 
say  to  a  person  present,  we  may  write  if  absent.  There  is,  of 
course,  a  choice  of  subjects  to  be  made,  and  a  proper  mode  to  be 
chosen  of  communicating  them.  To  regulate  that  choice,  we 
should  select  as  though  the  friend,  to  whom  we  are  writing,  were 
by  our  side,  and  could  remain  with  us  but  a  short  time.  In  that 
case  we  should  speak  only  of  those  things  which  were  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  express  them  at  once  as  clearly  and  con- 
cisely as  possible;  and  pleasantly,  didactically,  modestly,  feel- 
ingly, or  otherwise,  according  to  their  nature  and  the  party 
whom  we  address.  The  writer  should  always  bear  in  mind,  that 
"  nothing  can  be  more  improper  than  ease  and  laxity  of  expression 
when  the  importance  of  the  subject  impresses  solicitude,  or  the 
dignity  of  the  person  exacts  reverence." 

Politeness,  and  the  forms  of  society,  frequently  require  us  to 
write  letters  of  compliment,  inquiry,  or  condolence,  to  those  with 
whom  we  are  upon  the  slightest  possible  terms  of  intimacy.  Such 
letters,  which  are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  most  difficult,  are, 
in  fact,  the  most  easy  of  execution;  for  the  circumstance  which 
calls  for  the  letter,  affords  us  a  subject:  to  this  the  letter  must  be 
restricted.  It  is  true,  that  there  is  a  graceful  manner  of  framing 
an  inquiry,  and  making  a  compliment,  and  this  manner  it  is  in 
vain  to  seek  for,  by  labour,  at  the  moment  the  letter  is  required; 
if  it  be  difficult  to  compose,  it  will  seem  studied,  heartless,  and  in- 
elegant in  expression.  Simplicity  and  ease  impart  the  chief  grace 
that  can  be  given  to  a  condoling  or  complimentary  note. 

A  letter  of  congratulation  should  be   as   the   thornless  rose: 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  319 

the  least  appearance  of  envy,  or  jealousy,  at  the  good  fortune  of 
those  whom  we  felicitate,  is  unpardonable;  it  should  contain  no 
hint  of  any  hope  that  the  advancement,  or  change  of  situation, 
upon  which  the  compliment  is  made,  may  afford  the  person  ad- 
dressed the  means  of  conferring  a  benefit  on  the  party  writing. 
It  should,  in  fact,  be  an  unmixed  expression  of  pleasure  and  con- 
gratulation on  the  event  that  calls  for  its  production.  Care  must, 
nevertheless,  be  taken  to  keep  within  due  bounds:  to  exaggerate 
in  our  congratulations,  is  to  become  keenly  satirical. 

To  repeat  what  has  before  been  said,  the  style  must  always 
correspond  with  the  occasion.  In  a  letter  of  congratulation  we 
should  be  cheerful;  from  an  epistle  of  condolence  all  pleasantry 
should  be  banished:  to  exhibit  the  wit  which  we  possess,  at  such 
a  time,  is  like  smiling  at  a  funeral,  to  display  a  beautiful  set  of 
teeth.  When  addressing  a  person  who  is  labouring  under  anv 
grievous  calamity,  it  is  bad  taste  to  make  light  of  it;  by  treating 
that  loss  as  a  matter  which  a  little  firmness  would  enable  the  party 
who  has  suffered  it  to  endure  calmly,  we  irritate,  rather  than 
soothe.  It  is  better  to  enter  into  the  feelings  of  the  mourner, — 
to  eulogize  die  departed  relation, — to  rebuke  the  ingratitude  of 
die  false  friend, — to  confess  the  inconstancy  of  fortune,  or  other- 
wise, according  to  die  circumstances;  and,  without  magnifying, 
to  lament  die  full  extent  of  the  condoled  party's  affliction:  thus 
we  seem  to  share,  and,  therefore,  in  some  degree,  lessen  the 
Borrow  of  the  sufferer.  A  celebrated  lady,  in  a  letter  of  condolence 
to  a  friend,  uses  this  language: — "  The  more  I  think  on  the  loss 
you  have  just  met  with,  the  greater  it  appears,  and  the  more  it 
affects  me.  He  was,  indeed,  worthy  of  being  the  head  of  such  a 
family  as  yours,  and  can  never  be  replaced  !  We  have  every 
reason  to  believe  that  he  is  happy:  we  should  weep  for  ourselves, 
therefore,  rather  than  for  him.  My  heart  grieves  for  your  situation : 
it  will  be  long  ere  you  can  console  yourself  for.  such  a  separation. 
If  I  were  mistress  of  my  own  actions,  I  would  certainly  abandon 
everything  to  be  near  you."  This  language  is  balm  to  the  wounded 
mind,  which  rejects  consolation  from  those  who  do  not  seem  sensible 
of  die  extent  of  the  sorrow  under  which  it  labours.  Such  a  subject 
must,  nevertheless,  be  treated  with  a  delicate  hand;  for,  by  ex- 
aggeration, we  should  aggravate  rather  than  console ;  and  a  mere 
string  of  bitter  reflections,  without  any  concluding  ray  of  hope 
being  held  out ;  or  the  least  hint  that  die  calamity  has  been  occa- 
sioned by  the  neglect,  or  imprudence,  of  the  party  suffering  under 
its  visitation,  is  like  striking  die  stricken  deer. 
27* 


320  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

Letters  of  inquiry,  as  their  subjects  are  generally  brief,  will 
bear  a  little  verbiage.  To  be  too  concise  in  our  inquiries,  as  to 
the  indisposition  of  an  acquaintance,  manifests  a  carelessness, 
which  may  be  turned  to  our  disadvantage:  but  a  mere  billet  of 
complimentary  inquiries  should  not  be  lengthened  into  a  formid- 
able epistle;  it  then  becomes  absurd.  In  an  application  to  a 
superior  in  rank,  or  age,  for  a  favour,  neither  gaiety  nor  fami- 
liarity is  tolerated.  A  request  may  be  made  to  an  equal,  and  an 
acquaintance,  with  smiles;  Friendship  commands,  even  when  she 
asks:  a  friend  may,  therefore,  when  soliciting,  be  pleasant  without 
impeachment.  Brunei  wrote  thus  to  his  friend  Fontenelle: — 
"  You  have  a  thousand  crowns, — send  them  to  me."  To  this 
request  Fontenelle  replied,  as  follows: — "When  I  received  your 
letter,  I  was  about  placing  out  my  thousand  crowns:  I  shall  not 
easily  find  so  good  an  opportunity  again, — Voyez  done."  Brunei's 
rejoinder  was  only  "  Send  me  your  thousand  crowns,"  and  Fon- 
tenelle sent  them. 

The  forms  of  complimentary  letters  of  thanks,  for  inquiries,  &c. 
are  extremely  simple ;  being  little  more  than  an  echo  of  the  in- 
quiries, with  the  writer's  acknowledgements  for  the  civility  of  the 
inquirer.  In  letters  of  thanks  for  real  favours  conferred,  the 
language  ought  to  be  simple  and  strong:  it  should  appear  to  be 
dictated  by  the  heart:  the  principal  subject  must,  of  course,  be 
the  writer's  gratitude.  The  extent  of  the  obligation  should  neither 
be  magnified  nor  treated  as  less  than  it  really  is.  To  hint  that 
the  favour  conferred  shall  be  returned,  or  to  express  a  wish  that  an 
occasion  may  offer,  for  the  party  benefited,  to  oblige  her  bene- 
factress, is  exceedingly  indelicate ;  and  conveys  an  idea,  that  the 
writer  feels  the  favour  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  loan,  which  is 
to  be  repaid  the  first  opportunity:  although  such  be  the  feeling,  it 
is  not  fit  that  it  should  be  expressed. 

If  we  confer  a  favour,  and  announce  the  fact  to  the  party 
whom  we  have  obliged,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  any  expressions 
that  may  tend  to  wound  the  feelings:  it  is  possible  to  grant  a 
favour  in  such  a  manner  as  to  offend,  rather  than  to  delight;  to 
create  disgust,  rather  than  gratitude.  The  language  of  a  letter, 
which  states  that  the  writer  has  performed  an  important  service, 
on  behalf  of  the  individual  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  should  be 
simple,  and  void  of  ostentation.  "  He  that,  like  Pliny,  sends  his 
friend  a  portion  for  his  daughter,  will,  without  Pliny's  eloquence 
or  address,  find  means  of  exciting  gratitude,  and  securing  accept- 
ance ;  but  he  that  has  no  present  to  make  but  a  garland  or  riband, 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  321 

or  some  petty  curiosity,  must  endeavour  to  recommend  it  by 
his  manner  of  giving  it." 

A  letter  of  recommendation  is  a  letter  of  business,  and  should 
be  composed  with  care :  it  is  a  guarantee,  to  the  extent  of  its 
language,  for  the  party  recommended  ;  truth,  therefore,  should 
never  be  sacrificed  to  condescension,  false  kindness,  or  politeness. 
To  write  a  letter  of  recommendation  contrary  to  one's  own  opinion 
and  knowledge  of  the  person  recommended,  is  to  be  guilty  of  a 
great  imprudence. 

To  say  all  that  is  necessary,  in  a  clear  and  distinct  manner, 
and  nothing  more,  is  the  grand  merit  of  a  letter  on  business. 
Pleasantry  and  pathos  would  be  greatly  misplaced  in  it,  unless  it 
be  of  a  mixed  nature ;  that  is,  necessarily,  or  properly,  embracing 
some  other  subject.  Brilliant  diction  is  a  dress  in  which  directions 
on  business  should  never  be  clothed.  The  style  ought  to  be  pre- 
cise, sufficiently  copious,  but  not  redundant.  Everything  necessary 
should  be  stated,  plainly  and  unequivocally;  so  that  the  party 
addressed  may  be  in  full  possession  of  our  desires  and  opinions, 
on  the  subject  of  our  correspondence.  Ambiguity  is  nowhere  so 
unpardonable  as  in  a  letter  on  business. 

It  is  a  maxim  with  the  discreet,  never  to  give  advice  until  they 
have  been  thrice  asked  for  it :  in  many  instances,  to  volunteer  it, 
is  to  be  offensive  to  those  whom  you  wish  to  benefit :  it  is  much 
more  pleasant  to  give  than  to  receive  it.  Unsolicited  counsel  is  a 
bitter  draught ;  and  even  those  who  crave  your  opinions,  will  feel 
themselves  offended  if  you  be  forward,  as  well  as  frank,  in  reply- 
ing to  them.  A  mendicant  implored  alms  ;  the  party  whom  the 
unfortunate  man  addressed,  instead  of  relieving  his  necessities, 
told  him,  "  that  he  was  strong  and  youthful,  and  should  rather 
work,  than  live  by  begging."  "I  asked  you  for  money,"  replied 
the  mendicant,  "not  for  advice."  People,  in  general,  are  but  too 
prone  to  take  the  same  course :  they  are  applied  to  for  succour, 
and,  in  return,  they  give  counsel.  A  friend  should,  perhaps, 
give  advice  to  a  friend,  if  he  should  see  occasion  so  to  do,  how- 
ever unpalatable  it  may  be  ;  but,  in  general,  we  cannot  be  too 
sparing  of  our  counsel. 

It  is  a  foolish,  but  not  an  uncommon  practice,  to  ask  advice  on 
an  act  which  has  been  performed :  in  such  a  case  it  is  useless,  in 
reply,  to  adopt  such  terms  as  "  If  I  had  the  direction  of  the 
affair  I  would  have  acted  otherwise;"  or,  "I  would  rather  you 
had  done  so  and  so,"  &c.  If  you  cannot  approve  what  is  irre- 
vocable, be  silent  upon  the  subject.  If,  however,  you  should  be, 


322  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

in  some  measure,  compelled  to  give  another  your  counsel,  be  pro- 
digal of  conciliatory,  and  sparing  of  positive,  phrases.  "  With 
deference  to  your  own  judgment,  it  seems  to  me  ; "  "I  may  be 
mistaken ;  you  are,  doubtless,  the  best  qualified  to  judge :  I, 
therefore,  merely  submit,"  &c. — and  similar  expressions,  will  save 
you  from  being  offensive,  ami,  at  the  same  time,  afford  you  a 
graceful  manner  of  expressing  the  opinions  which  your  conscience 
dictates  on  the  occasion. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  write  letters  of  excuse :  in  such 
a  case,  the  party  must  not  forget  that  almost  as  much  depends  on 
the  time  as  the  manner  of  making  an  excuse :  it  may  be  too  late 
to  be  effective  ;  or  so  mis-timed,  as  to  aggravate  the  previous 
offence.  A  mischievous  page  concealed  himself  behind  the  arras 
of  the  court  of  justice,  at  Versailles,  and  fastened  the  wig  of  the 
president  to  the  tapestry,  so  dexterously,  that  the  latter  was  to- 
tally unconscious  of  the  trick.  On  the  king's  entrance,  the  presi- 
dent rose  suddenly,  leaving  his  wig  attached  to  the  arras.  In 
die  evening,  the  king  discovered  the  author  of  the  trick  ;  and 
though  lie  could  not  help  smiling  at  the  recollection  of  it,  he  com- 
manded the  page  to  crave  pardon  of  the  venerable  president.  The 
wag  mounted  his  horse  in  the  middle  of  the  night;  rode  to  the 
president's  hotel;  announced  himself  as  a  messenger  from  the 
king;  awoke  the  president;  presented  his  most  humble  respects, 
and  begged  to  be  excused  for  the  trick  he  had  played  behind  the 
arras,  in  the  morning.  The  president  very  properly  observed, 
that  the  apology  was  worse  than  the  offence.  What  this  page  did 
maliciously,  other  persons  often  do  inadvertently :  they  crave 
forgiveness  at  improper  seasons  ; — the  excuse  which  would  be 
freely  accepted  to-day,  might  be  indignantly  rejected  a  month 
hence.  A  slight  notice  of  the  fact, — an  explanation  that  will 
extenuate  the  offence, — an  assurance  of  the  total  absence  of  any 
intention  to  wound  the  feelings, — regret  for  the  circumstance, — 
professions  of  attachment,  and  an  expression  of  earnest  desire  to 
recover  the  good  opinion  of  the  person  offended, — are  the  elements 
of  a  letter  of  excuse, — modified  according  to  the  fact,  time,  and 
persons  interested.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  excuses  for 
offences  not  yet  noticed;  such  as  delay  in  reply  to  a  letter,  or  in 
executing  a  commission :  in  these  cases  they  generally  commence 
letters  on  other  subjects.  A  reason  should  be  given  for  the  delay ; 
or  the  neglect  candidly  confessed,  and  indulgence  solicited.  If  the 
apology  appear  forced,  or  made  unwillingly,  it  cannot  be  effective. 
Frankness,  in  all  ordinary  cases,  will  ensure  forgiveness. 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  323 

It  is  wrong  to  imagine,  that  in  a  familiar  or  playful  corres- 
pondence, or  letters  of  intelligence,  the  slip-shod  muse  is  to  be 
paramount.  False  grammar,  in  good  society,  is  not  tolerated, 
even  enfamille,  neither  can  it  be  in  a  letter.  In  the  most  familiar 
epistle,  we  should  recollect  what  we  owe  to  our  language,  to  our 
correspondent,  and  to  ourselves.  We  ought  not  to  write  anything 
of  which  we  may  hereafter  feel  ashamed.  Well-written  letters 
are  as  often  burnt,  or  destroyed,  as  slovenly  epistles  are,  by  acci- 
dent or  design,  preserved,  to  rise  up  in  judgment  against  us  here- 
after. Reason  should  govern  us  in  writing  to  those  persons  whom 
we  address  with  the  greatest  freedom.  For  the  benefit  of  the 
young  and  very  lively,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  well  to  observe,  that 
even  in  the  most  familiar  letters,  pertness  and  flippancy  are,  to 
persons  of  good  sense,  neither  agreeable  nor  amusing. 

In  a  letter  of  intelligence,  whenever  the  nature  of  the  news 
communicated  will  permit,  cull  with  taste,  and  relate  without 
preamble.  State  nothing  but  what  is  true;  avoid  mere  scandal; 
and  reject  whatever  is  merely  dubious, — or,  at  least,  state  it  to  be 
so.  If  you  have,  by  mistake,  communicated  any  false  intelligence, 
be  the  first  to  correct  it :  it  is  graceful  to  retrace  one's  steps,  when 
led  astray.  Select  such  facts  as  you  know  will  be  most  interesting 
to  your  correspondent,  and  relate  them,  if  of  a  pleasant  nature, 
gaily,  but  without  malice ;  if  serious,  adopt  a  style  suitable  to  the 
circumstances. 

It  is  clear,  that  in  familiar,  as  well  as  in  every  other  depart- 
ment of  epistolary  correspondence,  some  writers  will  exhibit  more 
talent  than  others.  We  cannot  all  expect  to  merit  the  compliment 
which  De  la  Harpe  paid  to  the  Marquise  de  Sevigne.  Speaking  of 
a  collection  of  the  letters  of  this  lady  (of  whom  it  has  been  said, 
that  she  is,  in  her  style,  what  La  Fontaine  is  in  his,)  La  Harpe 
uses  these  expressions: — "  What  book  can  be  more  precious  to  us 
than  that  which  amuses,  interests,  and  instructs  us,  without  de- 
manding any  attention  on  our  parti  She  always  feels  what  she 
relates :  she  paints  as  a  spectator,  and  we  fancy  we  see  the  pictures 
she  draws." 

France  has  produced  several  other  very  celebrated  letter-writers, 
besides  Sevigne.  Dr.  Johnson,  however,  appears  to  have  thought 
very  lightly  of  their  merits.  He  observes,  that  "  a  slight  perusal 
of  the  innumerable  letters,  by  which  the  wits  of  France  have 
signalized  their  names,  will  prove,  that  other  nations  need  not  be 
discouraged  from  the  like  attempts  by  the  consciousness  of  inability. 
For  (thus  the  critic  proceeds,)  surely,  it  is  not  very  difficult  to 


324  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

aggravate  trifling  misfortunes, — to  magnify  familiar  incidents, — 
repeat  adulatory  professions, — accumulate  servile  hyperboles,  and 
produce  all  that  can  be  found  in  the  despicable  remains  of  Voiture 
and  Scarron." 

Although  the  learned  critic  may,  in  the  opinion  of  many  persons, 
be  rather  too  severe  in  this  passage,  it  appears  tolerably  clear,  that 
the  best  models  of  the  epistolary  style,  are  not,  as  some  writers 
would  have  us  believe,  to  be  found  among  the  French.  However 
celebrated  Montesquieu,  Balzac,  Voiture,  De  Stael,  D'Aisse,  and 
others  of  that  nation,  may  have  been,  their  epistolary  productions 
cannot  surely  be  deemed  of  greater  beauty  (to  say  nothing  of 
those  of  Cicero  and  Pliny)  than  the  letters  of  such  distinguished 
writers  of  our  own  country,  as  Anne  Boleyn,  Lady  Russell,  Lady 
Mary  Wortley  Montague,  Howell,  Pope,  Wycherley,  Bishop 
Hoadley,  &c. 

Two  letters,  which  have  acquired  more  celebrity  than  any 
others  that  have  ever  been  written  by  women  of  our  nation,  are 
the  epistle  of  Anne  Boleyn  to  Henry  the  Eighth,  shortly  before 
her  execution,  and  that  of  Lady  Russell  to  Charles  the  Second,  a 
few  days  after  her  husband  was  beheaded. 

It  is  a  matter  of  surprise,  that  any  person  who  has  received  a 
tolerable  education,  and  is  at  all  versed  in  the  forms  adopted  in 
good  society,  should  fall  into  so  gross  an  error,  as  to  use  the  first 
person  at  the  conclusion  of  a  note  which  has  been  commenced  in 
the  third;  and  yet  this  is  sometimes  the  case.  For  example: — 
"  Miss  Walters  presents  her  compliments  to  Mr.  Travers,  and  begs 
to  be  informed  at  what  hour  Mr.  Travers  intends  to  start  for  Bath 
to-morrow,  as  I  particularly  wish  to  see  him  before  his  departure ; 
and  remain,  sir,  yours  sincerely,"  &c.  Such  negligence  and  in- 
elegance are  so  obvious,  that  they  may  be  easily  avoided. 

Notes  written  in  the  third  person,  are  frequently  rendered 
ambiguous,  and  sometimes  quite  unintelligible,  by  a  confusion 
of  the  personal  pronouns ;  which,  unless  the  sentences  be  carefully 
constructed,  seem  to  apply  equally  well  to  the  writer  as  to  the 
receiver.  There  is  a  French  anecdote  related,  of  rather  a  ludicrous 
mistake  arising  from  the  ambiguity  of  a  letter  written,  by  one 
friend  to  another,  in  the  third  person.  Monsieur  A.  addressed 
Monsieur  B.  who  dwelt  at  some  distance  from  the  town  where 
Monsieur  A.  resided,  in  these  terms, — "  Monsieur  A.  presents  his 
compliments  to  his  friend,  Monsieur  B.  and  has  the  satisfaction  of 
informing  him,  that  he  has  just  been  appointed,  by  Government,  to 
the  lucrative  and  honourable  post  of,  &c.  [naming  the  office]  in  his 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  325 

native  town."  On  receipt  of  this  letter,  B.  posted,  with  all  possible 
speed,  to  throw  himself  at  the  feet  of  A.  and,  with  the  warmest  ex- 
pressions of  gratitude,  thanked  his  supposed  benefactor.  A.  was 
amazed,  and  earnestly  inquired  the  cause  of  B.'s  raptures.  "  How!" 
exclaimed  B.  "  Have  I  not  sufficient  reason  to  be  grateful  1  Have 
you  not  obtained  for  me  the  important  post  of  so  and  sol"— -"  Not 
at  all,  my  dear  friend,"  replied  A.  "  it  is  I  who  have  been 
appointed  to  the  office ;  and  I  wrote  to  acquaint  you  of  the  cir- 
cumstance, thinking  you  would  be  happy  to  hear  of  your  old 
companion's  excellent  fortune."  B.  perused  the  note  again,  and 
discovered  that,  like  one  of  the  ancient  oracles,  it  contained  two 
meanings  which  were  directly  opposite  to  each  other. 

Notes  written  in  the  third  person,  are  frequently  used,  on 
ordinary  occasions,  between  equals  in  age  or  rank,  to  make  a 
reply  to  any  request;  to  convey  civil  inquiries,  or  compliments,  &c. 
For  these,  and  similar  purposes,  this  form  is  elegant  and  unex- 
ceptionable. It  is,  also,  generally  adopted  by  superiors,  when 
addressing  inferiors  on  subjects  of  little  importance;  but  it  is 
improper  when  an  inferior  addresses  a  superior,  or  when  the 
subject  is  serious  or  important.  It  is  also  too  cold,  distant,  and 
reserved,  for  epistolary  correspondence  between  near  relations  or 
friends.  If  an  individual  be  addressed  by  her  equal,  whether 
upon  terms  of  intimacy,  or  otherwise,  in  the  third  person,  it  is 
usual  to  reply  in  the  same  form ;  but  if, — in  answer  to  a  letter 
which  is  commenced  and  concluded  with  the  endearing  epithets 
used  by  parties  who  entertain  a  friendship  for  each  other;  or  the 
respectful  terms  and  expressions  of  regard,  sanctioned  by  custom, 
between  acquaintance,  or  personal  strangers, — the  third  person  be 
adopted,  it  is  equal,  in  the  strongest  cases,  to  an  insult ;  in  others, 
it  is  accepted  as  a  hint,  that  the  writer  is  offended,  or  wishes 
to  close  the  correspondence;  and,  under  other  circumstances,  it 
amounts  to  a  slight  degree  of  incivility.  A  parade  of  formal  and 
respectful  phrases,  in  a  reply  to  a  letter,  in  which  familiar  or 
affectionate  terms  are  used,  is  tantamount  to  a  very  strong  in- 
timation, that  the  writer  declines,  or  is  averse  from,  being  so 
addressed.  D'Alembert  said  of  a  certain  individual,  "  He  attempts 
to  be  familiar;  but  I  repulse  him  with  respect." 

Every  letter,  that  is  not  insulting,  merits  a  reply,  if  it  be  re- 
quired, or  necessary.  All  the  preceding  observations,  with  regard 
to  rank,  age,  &c.  are,  of  course,  applicable  to  replies.  If  the 
letter  contained  a  request,  accede  to  it  gracefully,  and  without 
ostentation,  or  refuse  without  harshness.  An  answer  to  a  letter  of 


326  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

condolence,  or  congratulation,  should  be  grateful.  The  subjects 
should  succeed  each  other  in  proper  order;  and  the  questions  put, 
be  consecutively  answered.  In  familiar  correspondence,  a  greater 
latitude  of  arrangement  is  allowed;  but  even  in  this,  no  question 
should  be  left  unanswered.  In  all  replies,  it  is  usual  to  acknow- 
ledge the  receipt,  and  to  mention  the  date,  of  the  last  letter 
received:  this  should  be  an  invariable  rule;  by  neglecting  it,  your 
correspondent  may  be  left  in  doubt;  or  very  properly  deem  you 
guilty  of  offensive  inattention. 

In  answers  to  letters  of  business,  the  substance  of  the  com- 
munication, to  which  the  writer  is  about  to  reply,  is  generally 
stated.  It  is  advisable  to  adopt  a  similar  mode  Avith  regard  to  any 
correspondence  of  importance:  thus,  with  proper  care  and  atten- 
tion to  other  particulars,  you  will  guard  against  any  possibility  of 
your  expressions  being  mistaken,  or  misrepresented;  or  your 
answers  applied,  or  conceived  to  apply,  to  other  questions  than 
those  for  which  you  intend  them.  The  manner  of  doing  this  is 
usually  as  follows: — "In  reply  to  your  letter,  dated,  &c.  in  which 
you  state  that,  &c.  [briefly  setting  forth  the  principal  points  which 
you  are  about  to  answer,]  I  beg  to  say,  &c."  This  practice  will 
give  a  formal  air  to  a  familiar  epistle,  if  strictly  pursued;  but 
some  attention  should  be  paid  to  it  in  all  epistolary  correspondence, 
as  it  insures  clearness,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  beauties,  as 
obscurity  is  the  chief  defect,  of  letter-writing.  That  the  party 
whom  you  address  is  at  a  distance,  and,  therefore,  incapable  of 
getting  any  passage,  which  is  not  sufficiently  explicit,  made  clear  by 
a  question,  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind.  It  is  painful  to  hear  a 
person,  when  reading  a  letter  from  an  absent  friend,  exclaim, 
occasionally,  "  I  suppose  she  alludes  here  to  her  sister;" — "I 
wonder  whether  she  means  last  Monday,  or  the  Monday  preced- 
ing," &c.  For  want  of  a  little  care  and  precision,  passages,  by 
which  a  great  deal  of  information  is  intended  to  be  conveyed,  are 
a  series  of  mortifying  enigmas  to  the  party  to  whom  they  are 
addressed. 

It  is  a  bad  practice  to  suffer  letters  to  remain  long  unanswered: 
irregularity,  in  this  particular,  is  a  mark  of  the  greatest  disrespect 
to  a  correspondent;  it  is  a  fault  which  ought  to  be  sturdily  attacked 
and  overcome.  "There  is,  in  many  people,"  says  an  eminent 
lady,  " particularly  in  youth,  a  strange  aversion  to  regularity;  a 
desire  to  delay  what  ought  to  be  done  immediately,  in  order  to 
do  something  else,  which  might  as  well  be  done  afterwards.  Be 
assured,  it  is  of  more  consequence  to  you  than  you  can  conceive, 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  327 

to  get  the  better  of  this  idle,  procrastinating  spirit,  and  to  acquire 
habits  of  constancy  and  steadiness,  even  in  the  most  trifling  matters ; 
without  them  there  can  be  no  regularity  or  constancy  of  action  or 
character;  no  dependence  on  your  best  intentions,  which  a  sudden 
humour  may  tempt  you  to  lay  aside  for  a  time,  and  which  a 
thousand  unforeseen  accidents  will  afterwards  render  it  more  and 
more  difficult  to  execute:  no  one  can  say  what  important  conse- 
quences may  follow  a  trivial  neglect  of  this  kind.  For  example: 
— I  have  known  one  of  these  procrastinators  disoblige,  and  gra- 
dually lose,  very  valuable  friends,  by  delaying  to  write  to  them 
so  long,  that  having  no  good  excuse  to  offer,  she  could  not  get 
courage  enough  to  write  at  all ;  and  dropped  their  correspondence 
entirely." 

It  is  almost  needless  to  say,  that  in  epistolary,  as  well  as  in 
every  other  style  of  composition,  the  rules  of  grammar  should  be 
strictly  observed  As  to  orthography,  it  will  be  sufficient,  perhaps, 
to  repeat  what  has  been  said  on  the  subject  by  more  than  one 
talented  writer: — among  persons  moving  in  good  society,  and  who 
may  be  supposed  to  have  received  a  tolerable  education,  although 
to  spell  correctly  be  no  merit,  to  spell  incorrectly  is  a  great  dis- 
grace. 

A  parenthesis  is  objectionable,  if  it  break  the  sense  and  distort 
the  sentence.  It  is  rare  that  the  subject  of  a  parenthesis  may  not 
be  better  contained  in  a  previous  or  following  paragraph,  or  an 
elongation  of  the  sentence,  than  thrown  abruptly  into  the  body  of 
it.  As  a  proof  of  the  obscurity  in  sense,  which  may  be  produced 
by  an  injudicious  use  of  the  parenthesis,  we  quote  the  following 
lines  from  a  translation  of  a  celebrated  Latin  author's  epistles : — 

"  But  Heaven,  indulgent  to  my  chaste  desire, 

Has  wrapped  (my  husband  safe)  proud  Troy  in  fire:" 

In  the  same  work  we  also  find  a  passage,  where  two  or  three 
sentences,  containing  facts  of  importance,  are  all  parenthetically 
packed  into  a  third,  so  awkwardly,  as  to  puzzle  a  good  reader 
how  to  convey,  by  emphasis,  pauses,  intonation,  or  otherwise,  the 
meaning  of  the  author : — 

"  Sunk  now  is  Troy,  the  curse  of  Grecian  damesj 
(Her  king,  her  all  a  worthless  prize !)  in  flames. 
0,  had  by  storms  (his  fleet  to  Sparta  bound) 
The  Trojan  perish'd  in  the  mad  profound !  " 

Comparisons  are  sometimes  very  felicitous ;  but  they  must  be 
made  with  care;  their  merit  consists  in  the  unity  of  their  terms; 

28 


328  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

if  they  do  not  agree  perfectly  with  each  other,  the  comparison, 
instead  of  being  powerful,  becomes  ridiculous.  A  metaphor  may 
also  be  used  with  advantage,  if  it  occur  naturally;  and  an  anecdote 
may  be  as  happily  applied  in  a  letter  as  in  familiar  conversation. 
Allusions  are  elegant,  when  introduced  with  ease  and  they  are  well 
understood  by  those  to  whom  tlu-y  an-  addressed.  An  allusion 
may  be  made  to  some  pictorial,  poetical,  or  mythological  relation; 
to  an  anecdote  of  society;  to  an  adventure  of  some  well-known 
hero  of  romance;  or,  indeed,  to  any  subject  of  notoriety.  The 
antithesis  renders  a  passage  piquant;  but  those  who  use  it  too 
frequently  are  apt  to  become  enigmatical.  Proverbs,  and  jeux-de- 
mots  are  inelegant;  if  the  latter  be  admitted,  it  must  be  sparingly. 
Occasional  jeux-de-mots,  in  a  lively  letter,  if  they  be  ingenious, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  produced  apparently  without  effort,  season 
the  style;  but  if  they  occur  frequently,  or  are  only  mediocre,  they 
tend  to  debase  it.  Such  as  tell  exceedingly  well  in  society,  make 
but  poor  figures  when  reduced  to  writing.  If,  in  epistolary  corres- 
pondence, a  writer  permit  herself  to  play  upon  words,  she  must 
do  so  ingeniously,  or  her  reader  will  laugh  at  her,  instead  of  at 
her  point.  When  occupied  on  a  serious  subject,  such  a  practice  is 
most  reprehensible;  it  is  tolerated  only  when  addressing  an  equal 
and  an  acquaintance:  to  a  stranger,  or  a  superior,  it  would  be 
insulting;  to  an  inferior,  too  familiar.  Some  very  high  authorities 
reprehend  the  use  of  this  small  artillery  of  wit, — if  it  may  be  dig- 
nified with  such  a  title, — either  in  conversation,  or  otherwise,  as 
being  in  bad  taste;  generally  speaking,  therefore,  we  may  venture 
to  say,  that  it  ought  not  be  admitted  into  letter-writing. 

The  usual  contractions  in  the  English  language,  are  permitted 
in  letters  between  friends,  relations,  and  equals.  They  are  un- 
objectionable, also,  in  letters  on  business;  but  held  disrespectful, 
even  by  those  who  are  not  exceedingly  rigid,  when  used  by  an 
inferior  addressing  a  superior.  All  arbitrary  contractions,  in  every 
case,  are  in  bad  taste;  nothing  can  be  more  inelegant  than  to 
press  a  multitude  of  abbreviations,  which  are  not  made  current, 
and,  consequently,  familiar  by  custom,  into  any  letter;  those,  on 
the  contrary,  which  are  generally  sanctioned,  the  letter-writer  is 
at  full  liberty  to  adopt,  in  all  such  epistolary  correspondence  as 
admits  of  a  freedom  of  style ;  and  there  are  some  few  even  which 
it  would  be  unwise  to  reject  in  communications  to  a  superior. 

Punctuation  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance  in  every 
species  of  literary  composition :  it  has  been  properly  termed,  the 
very  marshalling  and  arranging  of  the  words  of  a  language; 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  329 

without  it,  there  can  be  no  clearness,  strength  or  accuracy.  Its 
utility  consists  in  separating  the  different  portions  of  what  is 
written,  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  subjects  may  be  properly 
classed  and  subdivided,  so  as  to  convey  the  precise  meaning  of  the 
writer  to  the  reader;  to  show  the  relation  which  the  various  parts 
bear  to  each  other;  to  unite  such  as  ought  to  be  connected,  and 
keep  apart  such  as  have  no  mutual  dependance.  It  is  a  circum- 
stance very  much  to  be  lamented,  that  so  little  attention  is  paid  to 
punctuation.  A  late  writer  on  this  subject,  very  truly  states,  that 
manuscripts  in  general  are  so  notoriously  defective,  that  not  a 
little  of  the  obscurity  resulting,  in  many  instances,  from  anything 
written,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  perfect  confusion  that  exists  in 
the  disposition  of  the  words.  Many  persons  never  make  use  of 
any  stops  at  all ;  thus  leaving  the  task  of  discovering  where  their 
sentences  begin  and  end  to  the  ingenuity  of  their  correspondents: 
others  use  only  the  full-point;  thus  huddling  the  minor,  and 
frequently  important,  divisions  of  a  period,  one  upon  another,  in 
most  perplexing  disorder :  a  third  class  of  writers  press  all  the 
points  into  their  service ;  but  place  them  in  such  improper  posi- 
tions, that  they  produce  that  identical  sort  of  confusion  which  they 
are  intended  to  prevent.  The  same  words,  by  means  of  different 
modes  of  punctuation,  may  be  made  to  express  two  meanings 
exactly  opposite  to  each  other;  an  ambiguous  passage  may  fre- 
quently be  rendered  clear  by  a  comma;  and  the  sense  of  an 
unintelligible  sentence  be  made  manifest  by  the  simple  remedy  of 
a  couple  of  colons,  judiciously  applied.  The  object  of  writing  is, 
most  certainly,  to  express  the  meaning  of  the  writer  to  the  reader; 
punctuation  was  invented  for  the  purpose  of  giving  to  written 
language  a  precision  and  certainty  which  words  alone  could  not 
convey;  we  should,  therefore,  endeavour,  not  only  to  write  cor- 
rectly, but  to  point  what  we  write  with  some  degree  of  precision. 
It  should  be  remembered,  that  points  are  the  substitutes  of, — or, 
rather,  the  only  means  we  possess  of  conveying  by  writing, — the 
various  pauses,  intonations,  emphases,  &c.  which  we  adopt  in 
discourse:  without  their  aid,  we  may  become  ludicrous,  where  we 
intend  to  be  impressive; — exclamatory,  where  it  is  our  intention 
to  inquire ; — and  subject  to  being  misunderstood  in  every  line  which 
we  commit  to  paper.  Were  many  letters  to  be  read  aloud,  pre- 
cisely as  they  are  written,  they  would  sound  like  a  mere  "  farrago 
of  nonsense:"  and  could  their  writers  hear  them  so  read,  they 
would,  in  all  probability,  be  induced  to  apply  themselves  to  the 
study  of  a  proper  mode  of  punctuation :  but,  unfortunately  for 


330  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

themselves,  in  this  respect,  writers  very  seldom  hear  their  own 
letters  read;  and  they,  very  foolishly,  fancy  that  everybody  "  with 
a  grain  of  sense,"  will,  instinctively,  read  their  compositions,  with 
the  intonations,  emphasis,  and  tone,  they,  themselves,  desire. 
The  contrary  is  almost  invariably  the  case.  It  is  impossible  for  us, 
on  every  occasion,  to  convey  our  precise  meaning  by  means  of 
written  language;  but  we  may  advance  far  towards  it,  by  judi- 
ciously pointing  our  periods.  As  there  is  no  positive  system  of 
punctuation  to  direct  the  writer,  the  modern  editions  of  good 
authors  should  be  carefully  studied,  in  order  to  acquire  the  leading 
principles  of  die  science.  The  construction  of  sentences  may  be 
examined,  and  the  mode  adopted  of  dividing  them,  attended  to 
with  considerable  advantage.  It  is  a  good  plan,  for  improvement 
in  pointing,  to  copy  a  page  of  some  standard  work,  without  capitals 
or  points ;  and,  after  it  has  been  laid  aside  for  a  few  days,  to 
endeavour  to  write  it  again  with  the  proper  points;  by  a  subse- 
quent comparison  with  the  original,  the  writer  may  discover  her 
errors,  and  guard  against  similar  blunders  in  her  future  exercises. 
It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  she  will  attain,  by  these,  or  any  other 
means,  the  power  of  pointing  a  page,  in  complete  accordance  with 
a  printed  work;  but  she  will,  no  doubt,  acquire  a  degree  of  know- 
ledge and  experience  in  punctuation,  which  cannot  fail  to  be  of 
considerable  utility  to  her  in  her  future  epistolary  productions. 

In  order  to  show  the  necessity  of  not  merely  using  points,  but 
punctuating  properly,  the  following  passage  from  a  work  on  this 
subject,  in  which  it  is  given  as  a  study,  but  without  any  key,  is 
submitted  to  the  reader: — 

"  The  persons  inside  the  coach  were  Mr.  Miller  a  clergyman 
his  son  a  lawyer  Mr.  Angelo  a  foreigner  his  lady  and  a  little 
child." 

As  this  passage  stands,  without  points,  H  is  unintelligible:  by 
different  modes  of  punctuating  it,  several  alterations  may  be  made 
in  its  sense ;  not  only  as  to  the  number  of  persons  in  the  coach,  but, 
also,  as  to  their  country,  professions,  and  relationship  to  each 
other.  By  a  change  of  points,  the  lady  may  be  described  as  the 
husband  of  either  one  of  two  persons:  Mr.  Miller's  son  may  be 
made  a  clergyman,  or  a  lawyer,  at  will ;  or  his  son  may  be  taken 
from  him  and  given  to  a  clergyman,  whose  name  is  not  mentioned. 
We  shall  give  three  or  four  different  modes  of  punctuating  this 
passage.  The  reader  may,  if  she  think  fit,  amuse,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  convince  herself  of  the  propriety  of  attending  to  the 
proper  use  of  stops,  by  a  number  of  variations; — each  of  them 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  331 

correct  in  itself,  and,  at  the  same  time,  endowing  the  words  with 
a  different  signification: — 

"  The  persons  inside  the  coach  were  Mr.  Miller,  a  clergyman, 
his  son,  a  lawyer,  Mr.  Angelo,  a  foreigner,  his  lady,  and  a  little 
child." 

By  this  mode  of  pointing,  it  would  appear  that  there  were 
eight  individuals  in  the  coach:  namely, — a  clergyman,  a  lawyer, 
a  foreigner  and  his  lady,  a  little  child,  Mr.  Miller,  Mr.  Angelo, 
and  the  clergyman's  son. 

"  The  persons  inside  the  coach  were  Mr.  Miller,  a  clergyman; 
his  son,  a  lawyer;  Mr.  Angelo,  a  foreigner;  his  lady;  and  a  little 
child." 

This  change  in  the  punctuation  would  reduce  the  parties  in 
the  coach,  exclusive  of  the  lady  and  child,  to  three  persons ;  and 
make  Mr.  Miller  himself  a  clergyman,  Mr.  Miller's  son  a  lawyer, 
and  Mr.  Angelo  a  foreigner. 

"  The  persons  inside  the  coach  were  Mr.  Miller;  a  clergyman, 
his  son;  a  lawyer,  Mr.  Angelo;  a  foreigner,  his  lady,  and  a  little 
child." 

Here  Mr.  Miller's  son  becomes  a  clergyman,  Mr.  Angelo  a 
lawyer,  and  the  lady  and  child  those  of  a  foreigner,  who  is  name- 
less. 

"  The  persons  inside  the  coach  were  Mr.  Miller;  a  clergyman, 
his  son ;  a  lawyer ;  Mr.  Angelo ;  a  foreigner,  his  lady ;  and  a  little 
child." 

Mr.  Angelo  here  ceases  to  be  a  lawyer ;  there  is  no  longer  a 
foreigner  who  is  the  husband  of  the  lady  and  the  father  of  the  child ; 
but  the  lady  is  described  as  being  a  foreigner,  and  Mr  Angelo's 
wife ;  and  the  child  is  not  understood  as  being  akin  to  any  person 
in  the  coach. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  alterations  that  may  be  effected 
in  the  sense  of  this  sentence,  by  means  of  punctuation.  It  would 
be  needless  to  multiply  them  further;  sufficient  has,  doubtless, 
been  done,  to  show  the  necessity  of  pointing  a  passage  so  as  to 
accord  with  the  fact  it  is  intended  to  relate. 

It  is  very  improper  to  omit  dating  a  letter.  The  address  of  the 
person  who  writes  it  should  be  put  above,  or,  if  it  be  short,  on 
the  same  line  with  the  day  of  the  month  and  the  year ;  and  such 
addresses,  as  well  as  the  signature,  should  be  written  in  a  plain, 
intelligible  hand.  Instances  have  occurred,  of  letters  remaining 
unanswered  through  the  culpable  negligence,  or  carelessness,  in 
these  particulars,  of  the  parties  sending  them.  It  is,  in  many 
28  * 


332  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

cases,  as  bad  to  write  the  address  in  an  illegible  scrawl,  or  sign 
the  name  in  a  fantastic  and  affected  style,  as  to  omit  them  alto- 
gether. The  consequences  of  an  address  being  either  omitted,  or 
written  incorrectly,  or  in  characters  which  cannot  be  deciphered, 
in  a  letter  from  a  person  who  is  either  travelling  from  place  to 
place,  or  whose  abode  is  not  previously  known  by  the  person  to 
whom  the  letter  is  addressed,  may  prove  very  unpleasant  to  the 
parties.  The  same  observation  is  applicable  to  a  fanciful  signature. 
It  is  quite  a  tax  upon  the  patience  and  good  temper  of  an  indi- 
vidual, who  is  addressed  by  a  stranger,  or  an  acquaintance,  for 
the  first  time,  on  a  subject,  perhaps,  relating  only  to  the  interests 
of  the  writer,  or,  indeed,  in  any  case,  to  conclude  with  an  hiero- 
glyphic; to  place  him  in  the  dilemma  of  either  remaining  in 
ignorance  of  the  name  of  the  party  who  has  honoured  him  with 
the  epistle,  or  puzzling  his  brains,  and  straining  his  eyes,  to  dis- 
cover the  rebus. 

The  date  of  a  letter  is  sometimes  written  beneath  the  signature ; 
and,  by  some  persons,  on  the  left  side  of  the  bottom  of  the  paper: 
in  the  former  situation,  it  has  an  inelegant  appearance ;  and  in 
the  latter,  it  usurps  the  place  of  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom 
the  letter  is  addressed.  The  most  usual  and  proper  situation  of 
the  address  of  the  party  writing,  with  the  date  beneath  it,  is  on 
the  upper  part,  and  on  the  right  side  of  the  paper,  midway  be- 
tween the  first  line  of  the  letter  and  the  upper  edge.  Notes, 
written  in  the  third  person,  are,  occasionally,  dated  in  the  same 
manner;  but  in  these,  the  most  approved  manner  is  to  place 
the  address  and  date  on  the  right  side,  a  little  below  the  last  line 
of  the  note. 

Both  letters  and  notes  in  the  third  person,  should  be  addressed 
to  the  party,  for  whom  they  are  intended,  on  the  left  side  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  paper;  the  place  of  abode  it  is  unnecessary  to 
add.  The  letter,  or  note,  should  never  be  finished  so  near  the 
bottom  as  not  to  leave  sufficient  room  for  the  usual  conclusion, 
signature,  &c.  It  is  better  to  carry  over  a  line  or  two  to  the  next 
side,  than  to  squeeze  the  signature  of  the  writer,  and  the  name 
of  the  party  addressed,  down  to  the  paper's  edge,  even  if  a  little 
more  than  the  usual  blank  be  left  beneath  the  last  line  of  the  first 
side.  The  signature  should  always  be  written  towards  the  right 
edge  of  the  page.  The  language  adopted  at  the  conclusion  of 
letters,  varies  according  to  the  rank,  age,  and  other  circumstances 
of  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed.  It  is  a  point  with  many, 
so  to  construct  the  last  sentence  of  the  letter,  that  the  "  words  of 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  333 

course,"  previous  to  the  signature,  may  form  its  conclusion.  It  is 
disrespectful  to  be  too  concise  in  this  part  of  a  letter,  especially 
when  addressing  a  superior.  The  forms  ascend,  by  various  grades, 
from  the  plain  "  I  am,  Sir,  Your  humble  servant,"  even  beyond 
"  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  My  Lord,  With  great  respect,  Your 
Lordship's  most  obedient,  And  very  humble  servant,"  &c.  It  is 
usual  to  display  the  conclusion  in  two,  three,  or  more  lines,  ac- 
cording to  the  terms  used  by  the  writer. 

Our  sex  has  been  accused,  probably  with  some  reason,  of  re- 
serving the  most  important  part  of  a  letter  for  the  postscript ;  let  us 
endeavour  to  avoid  giving  cause  for  being  thus  reproached.  Post- 
scripts are,  for  the  most  part,  needless,  and  in  bad  taste.  Allow 
me,  therefore,  to  advise  my  young  friends  to  pause  a  few  moments 
before  they  conclude  a  letter,  and  reflect  whether  they  have  any- 
thing more  to  say.  Above  all  things,  let  them  not  defer  their 
civilities,  or  kind  inquiries,  for  any  friend  or  acquaintance,  to  this 
justly-despised  part  of  a  letter.  To  do  so,  is  a  proof  of  thought- 
lessness or  disrespect; — "pray  you  avoid  it."  "  My  kindest 
regards  to  my  cousin  Jane,"  with  a  P.  S.  before  it,  looks  like  what 
it  really  is, — an  after-thought ;  and  is,  therefore,  not  only  without 
value,  but,  to  persons  of  fine  feelings,  offensive.  There  is  an 
affectation,  also,  in  setting  the  jewel  of  the  whole  epistle  in  the 
postscript,  which  is,  certainly,  unworthy  of  being  either  approved 
or  imitated:  this  fault  is  more  frequently  committed  by  gentlemen 
than  ladies.  An  instance  occurs  to  me,  in  which  it  was  grossly 
palpable.  An  officer,  some  years  ago,  wrote  a  very  long  letter  to 
one  of  his  female  friends,  detailing,  not  only  the  particulars  of  a 
battle  in  which  his  regiment  had  been  engaged,  but,  also,  informa- 
tion, of  a  diversified  nature,  both  as  to  his  own  pursuits  and  petty 
privations,  as  well  as  concerning  the  country  through  which  he 
had  recently  marched.  He  concluded  by  kindly  mentioning,  and 
desiring  intelligence  of,  all  his  friends;  and  did  not  forget  to 
inquire  "  how  the  chestnut  colt  got  on."  After  all  this,  in  a  post- 
script of  a  line  and  a  half,  he  stated,  that  in  the  engagement  his 
leg  was  shattered,  and  had  afterwards  been  amputated;  but  that  he 
was  ft  pretty  well,  considering."  By  some  persons,  this  letter  has 
been  admired ;  to  me,  it  appears  to  be  a  splendid  specimen  of 
ridiculous  affectation. 

To  all  fantastic  signatures,  I  have  already  been  bold  enough 
to  declare  that  I  am  an  enemy.  To  all  fantastic  modes  of  folding 
letters,  or  notes,  I  will  also  presume  to  declare  my  aversion.  I 
have  some  reason  to  flatter  myself,  that  I  am  warranted  in  direct- 


334  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

ing  my  feeble  anathema  against  both,  by  good  taste,  and  the 
opinions  of  those  whom  I  at  once  respect  for  their  experience, 
and  admire  for  their  discrimination.  It  seems  to  be  an  object 
with  some  ladies,  especially  young  ladies,  to  fold  their  notes  in 
such  a  manner,  that  it  is  as  difficult  a  task  to  open  them,  as 
Alexander  found  it  to  unravel  the  knot  of  king  Gordius  :  like 
that  famous  knot,  they  are  frequently  cut  open  in  a  pet.  I  will 
venture  to  assure  my  readers,  that  it  is  no  proof  of  ingenuity,  ton, 
or  talent,  to  be  able  to  fold  a  piece  of  paper,  three  inches  square, 
in  thirty  triangles,  or  to  render  it  as  difficult  to  be  opened  as  a 
conjuror's  box.  The  common,  simple  modes  of  folding  letters  and 
notes  are,  beyond  all  comparison,  the  best;  and  not  only  quite 
sufficiently  secure,  and  perfectly  neat,  but  even  susceptible  of 
elegance. 

An  envelope  to  a  letter  addressed  to  a  superior,  is  at  once 
elegant  and  respectful;  in  fact,  it  is  good  taste  to  inclose  every 
letter  in  an  envelope,  except  such  as  are  sent  by  the  general  post, 
unfranked,  to  persons  not  in  Parliament.  Nothing  should  be 
written  on  the  inside  of  an  envelope ;  neither  ought  any  address 
to  be  placed  on  the  inclosure.  A  single  sheet  of  paper  is  sufficient 
for  a  note  and  its  envelope.  The  sheet  should  be  equally  divided, 
and  one  half  doubled  in  the  common  form,  upon  which  the  note  is 
to  be  written,  and  the  other  half  converted  into  an  envelope. 
For  letters,  an  entire  sheet  is  generally  devoted  to  the  inclosure, 
and  a  separate  half-sheet,  of  the  same  size,  used  for  the  envelope. 
In  this  case,  the  letter  is  written  in  the  usual  form ;  and,  if  neces- 
sary, the  whole  of  the  fourth  side  of  the  sheet  is  at  the  service  of 
the  writer.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the  inclosure  to  consist  of  only 
half  a  sheet  of  paper,  unfolded,  and  with  both  sides  written  on ; 
but  this  manner  is,  in  the  opinion  of  many  persons,  rather  ob- 
jectionable. It  is,  therefore,  by  no  means  recommended  to  the 
adoption  of  our  readers.  If  they  have  occasion  to  write  enough 
to  fill  two  sides  of  paper,  let  their  inclosure  be  an  intire  sheet ;  if 
their  communication  be  shorter,  the  inner  half-sheet,  doubled  as 
a  note,  is,  by  far,  the  more  graceful  form. 

Some  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  superscription:  it  should 
be  neither  too  high,  nor  too  low;  but  rather  approaching  the  lower 
than  the  upper  edge.  It  may  be  commenced  at,  or  near  to,  the  left 
side  of  the  paper;  and  the  beginning  of  each  succeeding  line  should 
be  nearer  the  right  edge  than  that  of  the  line  which  precedes  it. 
A  proper  division  of  the  address  must  be  made:  the  street  should 
not  be  placed  in  the  same  line  as  the  quartier;  nor  the  latter,  as 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  335 

the  town,  or  city;  nor  the  town,  or  city,  as  the  kingdom, — when 
it  is  necessary  that  these,  or  any  of  them,  should  be  mentioned. 
The  number  of  the  house  is  usually  placed  at  the  left-hand  lower 
corner  of  the  paper.  The  word  England  is  almost  unnecessary,  when 
the  letter  is  addressed  from  abroad  to  London,  or  any  principal 
city  in  this  country;  but  surplusage,  in  this  case,  being  no  offence, 
it  is  quite  as  well  to  add  it  to  the  superscription.  Where  parties, 
resident  in  the  same  town,  or  quartier  of  a  town,  write  to  each 
other,  it  is  not  customary  to  add  the  name  of  either  the  quartier 
or  town  to  the  address.  Of  these,  and  many  other  circumstances 
mentioned  in  this  article,  though  many  readers  are,  doubtless, 
aware,  there  may  be  others  who  are  not:  for  the  benefit  of  the 
latter,  the  observations  on  such  particulars  are  offered. 

Having  thus  traced  the  letter,  from  its  commencement  to  its 
superscription,  it  is  incumbent,  as  it  appears  to  me,  that  some- 
thing should  be  said  as  to  the  mode  of  sealing.  In  "olden  times," 
letters  were  secured  by  the  fair  maidens,  their  writers,  with  threads 
of  silk,  and,  occasionally,  even  with  braids  of  their  hair;  but, 
now-a-days,  "  wax  is  your  only  letter-lock"  of  reputation ;  wafers 
are  seldom  used,  but  by  men  of  business. 

The  process  of  sealing  a  letter  should  be  performed  in  a  few 
minutes ;  but  it  will  take  me  sometime  to  describe.  I  beg  to  crave 
the  particular  attention  of  my  readers  to  the  directions  I  a  i  about 
to  give :  they  were  obtained  from  an  eminent  gem-engraver,  and, 
as  I  shall  endeavour  to  be  as  explicit  as  possible,  it  strikes  me, 
that  the  instructions  will  be  of  some  value:  shining  as  I  here  do, 
with  a  borrowed  light,  and  repeating  merely  what  I  have  been 
taught,  I  trust  that  my  last  observation  will  pass  without  impeach- 
ment. 

There  are  few  persons  who  have  not  been  pleased  with  the 
beauty  and  rich  effect  of  the  impressions  taken  by  engravers,  and 
wondered  how  they  were  effected.  The  reader  may  produce 
specimens  that  may  almost  rival  those  of  engravers,  by  a  little 
practice  and  attention  to  the  following  description  of  the  modus 
operandi : — 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  highly  essential  that  good  wax  should 
be  procured.  Various  kinds  of  fancy  wax  are  now  used  by  ladies ; 
most  of  them  are  nearly,  but  not  quite  so  well  adapted  to  display 
the  beauty  of  the  engraving,  as  that  of  a  brilliant  red  colour. 

The  light  for  melting,  next  claims  our  attention.  A  tallow 
candle  should  never  be  used.  A  lamp,  furnished  with  pure  oil, 
and  having  a  small  wick,  will  do  well  enough  for  the  purpose; 


336  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

but  it  is,  in  every  respect,  inferior  to  a  wax-taper,  with  which 
every  lady's  escrutoire  should  be  furnished.  It  is  at  once  more 
clean  and  elegant  in  its  appearance,  and  considerably  better 
adapted  for  melting  the  wax  than  either  a  candle  or  a  lamp.  It  is 
impossible  to  melt  the  wax  properly  while  the  flame  flits,  or  its 
edges  are  wavy,  or  it  seems  to  gush  up  in  flashes:  the  point 
should  be  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  flame,  the  body  of  which 
ought  to  be  clear  and  steady.  The  taper  should  be  placed  in  such 
a  position,  as  not  to  be  affected  by  any  draughts  of  air;  the  desk, 
or  table,  on  which  it  stands,  should  not  be  moved.  In  the  en- 
graver's room,  when  an  impression  is  about  to  be  taken,  the  air  is 
not  suffered  to  be  agitated  by  sudden  or  violent  motion:  "a  per- 
fect stillness  reigns  around;"  so  that,  in  half  a  minute  after  the 
taper  is  lighted,  it  burns  quite  steadily;  the  flarne  ascending  in 
the  form  of  a  myrtle-leaf,  and  being  surrounded  by  a  faint  blue 
halo,  which  is  larger  at  the  point  of  the  flame  than  at  its  sides. 
The  wax  should  just  touch  the  tip  of  the  flame  without  breaking 
its  body;  if  it  be  depressed  a  hairbreadth  too  much,  the  flame 
will  divide,  rise  up  on  each  side  of  the  wax,  envelope  it  in  smoke, 
and  cover  it  with  black  blotches,  than  which,  nothing  is  more 
detrimental  to  the  beauty  of  the  impression  about  to  be  produced. 
It  is  a  general  custom  to  thrust  the  wax  into  the  flame  of  the 
candle,  and  the  momenta  morsel  of  it  is  melted,  to  daub  it  on 
the  paper;  to  melt  another  and  another  portion,  and  when  an 
unsightly  and  shapeless  mass  is  gathered  together,  to  pass  the 
seal  over  the  tongue, — dab  it  upon  the  wax,  with  ridiculous  haste, 
— press  it  with  all  the  strength  which  the  sealing  party  possesses, — 
and  the  result  is,  an  impression  which  raises  a  blush  on  her  cheek. 
The  engraving  is  imperfectly  impressed:  if  it  be  a  head,  for 
instance,  there  is  "  a  horrid  hollow  in  the  fleshless  jaws;"  a  vague 
and  indistinct  apology  for  a  chin ;  or  a  rough  lump,  instead  of  a 
smooth  and  brilliant  forehead;  no  edge  appears  round  one  half  of 
the  impression,  while  the  other  rises  so  high,  as  to  be  unsightly. 
The  surface  is  covered  with  blacks :  thus, — Hebe's  cheek  is  often 
"  spotted  as  the  panther's  hide;"  and  the  indistinctness  of  the 
impression  would  render  it  dubious  to  the  receiver,  whether  the 
head  were  that  of  Homer  or  Helen,  were  it  not  for  the  beard. 
All  this  may  be  avoided  by  a  little  care ;  and  sealing  a  letter, 
instead  of  being  a  toil,  may  be  made  a  pleasure.  A  smile  has 
often  gleamed  upon  a  fair  face  at  the  first  glimpse  of  a  good  im- 
pression from  a  fine  seal,  accidentally  produced;  will  it  not,  then, 
be  a  source  of  daily  gratification,  to  possess  the  ability  of  taking 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  337 

off  capital  proofs  of  a  well-engraved  gem,  at  will,  and  without 
fear  of  failure1?  The  usual  mode  of  sealing  is  altogether  wrong; 
the  wax  should  never  be  thrust  into  the  flame  of  a  taper,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  as  I  have  said,  kept  above  its  point;  and  it  should 
not  be  removed  to  the  paper  until  a  sufficient  quantity  is  molten 
for  the  reception  of  the  seal ;  which,  instead  of  being  wetted  with 
the  tongue,  should,  previously  to  its  being  placed  on  the  wax,  be 
warmed  over  the  flame.  However  strange  this  doctrine  may  seem, 
it  is,  nevertheless,  true;  and  so  my  fair  friends  will  find  it  on 
trial.  The  seal  requires  heat  to  clear  it  of  the  least  dampness, 
which  is  highly  detrimental  to  the  perfect  junction  of  the  molten 
wax  with  the  finer  parts  of  the  engraving. 

In  melting  the  wax,  the  elbow,  for  the  sake  of  extreme  steadi- 
ness, should  rest  on  the  table,  or  Escrutoire ;  the  hand  should  be 
rather  below  the  flame,  so  that  the  point  of  the  wax  may  be 
higher  than  its  other  end.  The  hand  should  not  be  held  between 
your  face  and  the  candle,  but  be  kept  in  a  line  with,  and  on  the 
right  side  of  the  latter:  thus,  the  side  near  the  end,  instead  of 
the  end  itself,  of  the  wax,  may  be  placed  above  the  point  of  the 
flame.  The  wax  should  be  held  lightly  between  the  two  first 
fingers  and  thumb,  and,  as  soon  as  the  flame  begins  to  melt  it, 
the  upper  part  of  the  stick  is  to  be  turned  towards  you, — taking 
care  not  to  break  the  flame,  and  increasing  the  velocity  of  the 
evolutions  until  you  have  sufficient  wax  melted  at  the  end  of  the 
stick  for  the  seal  you  intend  to  use.  If  you  have  managed  this 
part  of  the  performance  cleverly,  the  wax,  though  molten,  will  be 
so  well  turned  round  the  stick,  that  no  drops,  or,  as  our  country 
cousins  designate  them,  kisses,  will  fall  in  the  passage  of  the  wax 
from  the  taper  to  the  proper  location  of  the  seal.  The  wax,  having 
been  brought  to  its  "  haven,"  is  to  be  applied  to  the  paper,  and 
turned,  with  its  lower  edge  from  you, — exactly  the  reverse  of  the 
motion  in  melting  it.  When  you  have  taken  enough  off,  turn  it 
nearly  upright  in  your  hand,  and  rub  the  molten  part  on  the 
paper,  half-a-dozen  times  round,  with  the  end  of  the  stick,  to 
level  it  on  all  sides,  and  obliterate  the  blacks,  if  you  have  been 
guilty  of  any  in  melting,  decreasing  your  circle  by  degrees,  until 
you  end  in  the  centre  of  the  proposed  seal;  here  twist  oft"  the 
thread  which  ties  the  stick  to  the  molten  wax  on  the  paper;  lay 
the  former  down,  and  observe  if  there  are  any  air-bubbles,  or 
bumps,  on  the  surface  of  the  latter ;  if  so,  pass  the  molten  wax 
lightly,  about  half  an  inch  above  the  flame  of  the  taper,  once, 
twice,  or  oftener,  until  they  disappear.  Round  wax  is  much  better 


338  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

for  procuring  good  impressions  than  flat,  for  this  reason ;  namely, 
— if  you  use  Hat  wax,  you  are  compelled  to  raise  and  depress  the 
stick,  alternately,  as  its  flat  parts  and  edges  are  brought  to  the 
point  of  the  flume;  and  it  requires  an  accurate  eye,  and  a  nice 
hand,  to  do  this  without  unequally  melting  the  wax,  or  smoking 
it,  by  breaking  the  point  of  the  flame :  with  round  wax  all  this  is 
avoided. 

If  you  have  melted  the  wax  properly,  there  is  no  occasion  to 
be  in  a  ludicrous  hurry  about  placing  the  seal  upon  it;  in  fact, 
you  may  be  premature  in  so  doing;  for  if  the  seal  be  applied 
while  the  wax  is  too  liquid,  it  will  recede  from  the  surface  of  the 
stone  to  the  edges;  thus  you  will  produce  a  deep  frame  and  no 
picture.  At  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  to  caution  you  not  to 
be  dilatory:  sealing  a  letter  should  be  done  without  hurry,  and 
without  delay.  After  the  wax  is  spread  upon  the  paper,  observe 
if  it  be  equally  distributed;  and  if  not,  remedy  the  defect,  by 
rubbing  it  out,  towards  the  part  which  is  deficient,  with  the  end 
of  the  stick,  or,  otherwise,  you  will  not  obtain  a  good  border  to  your 
impression ;  let  its  surface  be  as  smooth  as  possible,  highest  in  the 
centre,  and  decreasing  with  equal  gradations,  on  all  sides,  to  the 
edges ;  which  should  be  clear,  rounded,  but  not  abrupt.  The  mass 
of  wax  should  be  laid  out  according  to  the  form  of  your  seal  (than 
which,  of  course,  it  should  be  a  little  larger,)  whether  oblong, 
oval,  square,  or  otherwise.  A  very  small  bit  of  wax  may  be 
dropped  beneath  the  turn-over  of  the  letter ;  and  the  wax  intended 
for  the  impression  should  be  melted  exactly  upon  it.  The  edges 
of  the  turn-over  must  be  kept  level,  by  extending  the  fore  and 
middle  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  and  pressing  them  lightly  on  each 
side  of  the  place  where  the  seal  is  to  be  fixed.  If  this  be  not  done, 
the  edges  will  rise  up,  so  as  to  divide  the  wax  after  it  is  melted, 
and  the  impression  will  be  imperfect.  The  left  hand  is  not  to  be 
removed  from  its  position  until  the  seal  is  taken  off  the  wax, 
and  the  impression  is  complete. 

Previously  to  melting  the  wax,  the  face  of  the  seal  should  be 
held,  for  a  few  seconds,  over  the  point  of  the  taper,  observing  the 
same  precautions  as  in  melting  the  wax.  An  engraver  ascertains 
when  the  seal  is  sufficiently  hot,  by  placing  it  on  the  back  of  his 
hand ;  and  if  the  heat  be  immediately  perceptible,  but  by  no  means 
painful,  then,  as  ladies  who  write  on  cookery  say,  "  it  is  enough." 
After  the  wax  is  on  the  letter,  the  seal  is  to  be  passed,  for  an 
instant,  over  the  flame  again,  and  then  placed  upon  the  wax. 
Particular  care  should  be  taken  in  applying  the  seal,  as  nearly  as 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  339 

possible,  in  the  centre  of  the  wax,  so  as  to  raise  an  even  and 
regular  rim,  or  border,  round  its  edges:  it  should  be  kept  in  a 
perpendicular  position,  held  steadily  in  the  hand,  and  moderately 
pressed  on  the  wax,  upon  which  it  should  remain  from  ten  to 
twenty  seconds.  If  it  be  removed  too  soon,  the  impression  is 
liable  to  sink,  and  become  indistinct  in  the  finer  parts;  especially 
if  the  wax  be  in  too  liquid  a  state  at  the  time  of  making  the 
impression. 

However  formidable  this  description  of  the  proper  mode  of 
sealing  a  letter  may  appear,  it  will  be  found  remarkably  simple, 
and  the  work  of  about  a  single  minute  only  in  practice:  the  most 
common  actions  require  much  more  lengthened  descriptions, — if  it 
be  the  intention  of  a  writer  to  convey  accurate  directions  iff  a 
reader, — than,  at  the  first  glance,  one  would  be  inclined  to  imagine. 
The  mode  of  placing  a  pin  properly  in  "  the  sash,  the  fillet,  or 
the  kerchief,"  would  occupy  half  a  page,  and  require  considerable 
nicety,  if  it  were  so  described,  that  a  being,  who  had  never  seen 
"  the  feat  performed,"  might  acquire  a  correct  idea  of  the  mode 
of  doing  it» 

Should  either  of  our  readers  feel  inclined  to  produce  an  extra- 
ordinarily fine  impression,  she  may  lay  vermilion  on  her  seal, 
after  the  manner  of  the  engravers.  The  common  colour  is  unfit 
for  the  purpose;  Chinese  vermilion  only  should  be  used:  it  is  to 
be  procured  at  2s,  the  ounce  packet;  and  may  be  kept  in  any 
secure  compartment  of  the  writing-desk.  A  jeweller's  soft  polish- 
ing-brush,  and  a  camel's-hair  brush  of  a  tolerably  large  size,  will 
be  found  necessary  for  the  preparation  of  the  seal,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  vermilion:  a  bit  of  fine  pomatum,  about  the  size 
of  a  pin's  head,  is  to  be  rubbed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
polishing-brush ;  and  this  will  suffice  for  twenty  or  thirty  impres- 
sions. When  the  seal  is  warmed,  the  polishing-brush  is  passed 
across  it  three  or  four  times ;  the  camel's-hair  brush  is  then  dipped 
in  the  vermilion,  and  lightly  and  equally  applied  to  the  face  of 
the  seal,  so  as  to  leave  a  thin  mask  of  the  powder  over  every 
part  of  it.  The  loose  vermilion  must  then  be  blown  off  with  the 
breath,  otherwise  it  will  be  apt  to  lodge  in  the  hollows,  and 
prevent  the  wax  from  entering  the  finer  lines.  The  wax  is  to  be 
melted,  and  the  seal  applied  as  before  described.  The  impression 
will  be  so  superior,  as  to  compensate  for  the  trifling  additional 
trouble  taken  to  produce  it.  Instead  of  having  a  gloss  all  over 
the  surface,  and  being  of  one  colour  only,  the  interior  part,  which 
29 


340  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 

the  seal  has  touched,  will  be  of  a  rich  dead  vermilion ;  the  frame, 
or  raised  border,  outside  it,  retaining  the  natural  brilliancy  of  the 
wax.  The  vermilion,  as  will  be  readily  conceived,  quits  the  face 
of  the  seal  the  moment  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  wax,  and 
attaches  itself  to  the  surface  of  the  latter.  This  is  the  manner 
in  which  the  beautiful  impressions  of  the  engravers  are  made. 
They  have,  however,  one  great  advantage :  instead  of  making  an 
impression  on  a  letter,  they  melt  the  wax  on  thick  paper;  the 
bottom  of  which  they  hold  over  a  taper,  while  they  rub  the  wax 
to  the  highest  state  of  perfection  to  receive  the  seal.  If  the  im- 
pression should  be  bad,  they  can  melt  the  wax  again,  by  holding 
the  paper  above  the  flame;  but  in  sealing  a  letter,  if  the  first 
attempt  be  unsuccessful,  it  is  impossible  to  improve  it. 

Medallion  wafers,  for  sealing  letters  and  notes,  although  they 
possess  some  degree  of  elegance,  are  in  no  respect  superior  to 
impressions  of  good  gem  engravings  on  wax;  nor  have  they  at  any 
time  been  generally  adopted :  they  possess,  therefore,  an  objection- 
able appearance  of  singularity. 

For  ordinary  correspondence,  ladies  generally  employ  the  plain 
gilt-edged  post  paper.  White  and  tinted  satin  writing-papers,  of 
very  delicate  colours,  with  and  without  embossed  borders,  are  also 
frequently  used ;  they  are  considered  more  elegant  for  letters  of 
congratulation,  accompanying  a  present,  &c.  than  the  plain  paper. 
For  notes,  or  billets,  the  small  tinted  or  embossed  note-papers, 
of  various  sizes,  are  almost  universally  adopted ;  and  it  is  now 
become  very  general  to  enclose  them  in  delicate  white  or  tinted 
envelopes,  sometimes  embossed  round  the  margins,  but  more  fre- 
quently plain  white.  These  envelopes  may  lie  purchased,  at  the 
fancy  stationers',  of  all  the  sizes  requisite  for  folded  letters,  notes,  or 
billets:  they  resemble  a  sort  of  pocket;  the  ends  are  closed,  and 
the  turn-over  is  sealed  in  the  usual  way,  after  the  enclosure  is 
inserted.  Mourning  papers,  of  different  degrees  of  depth,  accord- 
ing to  the  occasion  which  requires  their  use,  are  adopted  for  all 
kinds  of  correspondence. 

The  best  ink  is  that  which  flows  freely  from  the  pen,  and  has  a 
pale  appearance  when  written  with,  but  dries  a  fine  black  colour. 
A  small  quantity  only  should  be  poured  into  the  standish,  and  the 
bottle,  in  which  the  residue  is  kept,  should  be  well  corked.  The 
glass  should  be  frequently  cleaned ;  it  ought  also  to  have  a  cover, 
as  that  the  dust  may  be  prevented  from  falling  into  the  ink:  neither 
sponge  nor  cotton  should  be  put  in  it ;  they  are  objectionable, 


THE     ESCRUTOIRE. 


341 


damage  the  fine  point  of  the  pen  when  it  is  squeezed  against  them 
in  order  to  make  the  ink  flow. 

Various  kinds  of  pens  have  been  invented  within  the  last  few 
years;  but  whatever  may  be  the  merit  of  the  greater  part  of  them, 
for  the  use  of  a  lady  who  is  seldom  employed  at  her  Escrutoire, 
except  to  write  a  few  short  notes,  and  occasionally  two  or  three 
letters,  none  of  them  are  superior  to  the  pen  made  from  the  gray 
goose  quill.  The  silver  and  steel  pens  have  always  appeared  to 
me  to  be  hard  and  unpleasant;  and  I  have  rarely  found  them 
capable  of  producing  such  fine  marks  as  a  good  common  pen. 
Boxes  of  quills  cut  from  the  feather,  and  also  points  only,  are  to 
be  obtained  at  the  stationers' :  these  are  convenient,  because  they 
are  more  portable  than  pens  in  bundles. 

The  complaint  of  having  wretched  pens,  ink,  and  paper,  as  an 
excuse  for  careless  or  unintelligible  writing,  is  a  plea  that  ought 
never  to  be  accepted  from  a  young  lady;  for,  as  every  one  must 
be  aware,  she  can  but  rarely,  if  ever,  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
events,  be  placed  in  situations  where  she  cannot  obtain  paper  and 
ink  of  proper  quality:  quills  are  also  easily  obtained,  and  she 
ought  to  be  able  to  make  or  mend  a  pen  herself.  If  she  have  not 
already  acquired  the  mode  of  performing  this  very  useful  operation, 
the  following  directions  will,  perhaps,  be  of  considerable  assist- 
ance to  her  in  making  the  attempt.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary 
that  the  Escrutoire  should  be  furnished  with  a  good  pen-knife: 
it  generally  is  so ;  but  the  blade  is  more  frequently  had  recourse  to 
for  the  purpose  of  erasing  mistakes,  than  for  its  more  legitimate 
use, — making  or  mending  a  pen:  I  will  take  leave  to  observe, 
en  passant,  that  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  it  is  better  to  run  the 
pen  lightly  through  a  word  inserted  by  mistake,  and  to  write  the 
correction  above  it,  than  to  deface  the  letter  by  scratching  it  out 
and  inserting  the  correction  in  its  place. 


The  handle  of  the  knife  should  be  held  low  in  the  hand,  so  that 
a  full  command  may  be  obtained  of  about  half  an  inch  of  the  top 


342  THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 


of  the  blade,  which  is  sufficient  to  operate  with  in  shaping  the  pen. 
A  quarter  of  an  inch  is  to  be  first  cut  off  the  back  of  the  quill 
(Fig.  1,)  and  about  twice  as  much  in  front  (Fig.  2;)  a  short  slit  is 
then  to  be  made,  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  centre  of  the  back  of 
the  quill  (Fig.  3;)  the  slit  is  to  be  increased  (Fig.  4,) — not  in  the 
ordinary  way  of  filliping  it  with  the  thumb  nail,  which  frequently 
makes  it  ragged,  irregular,  or  too  long, — but  by  using  the  end  of 
the  handle  of  the  knife,  if  a  proper  desk  knife,  or,  in  default  of  that, 
another  quill,  so  as  to  act  as  a  L-ver  against  it.  To  prevent  the  slit 
being  carried  too  far,  the  left  thumb  should  be  pressed  firmly  on 
the  buck  of  the  quill.  The  knife  is  now  to  be  applied  to  the  front 
part  again,  an;l  what  is  called  the  cradle-piece  (Figs.  5  and  6)  cut 
away;  a  point  is  then  to  be  obtained,  by  cutting  gradually  from 
the  sides  of  the  quill  towards  the  end;  this  is  technically  termed 
sloping  the  shoulders,  and  is  varied  according  to  the  maker's  style 
of  writing.  For  a  free  running-hand,  such  as  is  usually  adopted 
by  ladies,  the  shoulders  should  be  considerably  sloped,  as  fig.  7: 
which  shows  the  pen  with  the  cradle-piece  removed,  the  shoulders 
properly  sloped,  and  the  point  ready  to  be  nibbed.  When  the 
pen  is  in  this  state,  it  is  proper  to  ascertain,  by  looking  at  its  back 
as  well  as  front,  that  an  equal  quantity  has  been  removed  from 
each  side,  that  the  slit  is  neither  too  long,  nor  that  too  much  of 
it  has  been  cut  away:  in  the  former  case,  the  pen  will  be  either 
too  soft,  or  splutter;  in  the  latter,  it  will  be  too  hard,  except  it  be 
for  such  as  bear  heavily  on  the  paper  when  writing.  The  slit,  if 
too  long,  may  of  course  be  easily  decreased,  by  cutting  more  away 
from  the  sides;  if  it  !)e  too  hard,  the  slit  may  be  increased,  by 
carefully  applying  the  end  of  the  knife  handle,  or  another  quill, 
and  breaking  it  up  in  the  manner  directed  for  making  it  in  the 
first  instance.  At  this  stage  of  the  operation,  it  is  also  advisable 
to  see  that  the  points,  as  well  as  the  sides  on  each  side  of  the  slit, 
are  nearly  even,  and  neatly  tapered.  They  are  to  be  lightly  closed, 
and  the  back  of  the  pen,  from  the  points  of  the  shoulders  down- 
ward, gently  rounded  by  a  trifling  pressure  of  the  ball  of  the  left 
thumb.  The  pen-nibber,  or  the  end  of  another  quill,  is  now  to 
be  introduced  to  the  barrel  of  the  pen ;  with  the  knife  held  sloping, 
its  edge  being  forward,  a  fine  piece  is  to  be  cut  from  the  top  of  the 
points;  the  pen  is  then  to  be  cross-nibbed,  by  cutting  a  small 
portion  of  the  ends  of  the  points  with  the  knife  held  in  a  perpen- 
dicular position.  That  part  of  the  pen  called  the  scoop,  from 
which  the  cradle-piece  has  been  removed,  should,  finally,  be  cut 
out  and  finished,  so  as  to  bear  a  proper  proportion  to  the  shoulders 


. 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE.  343 

(Fig.  8,  the  perfect  pen.)  A  pen  may  be  mended  several  times 
without  increasing  the  length  of  the  slit;  for  if  two  or  three  thin 
strips  or  shavings  be  cut  away  from  each  side,  and  the  ends  nibbed, 
a  fresh  point  is  obtained.  When  the  slit  becomes  too  short,  it 
may,  of  course,  be  lengthened  by  the  point  of  the  handle,  in  the 
way  we  have  described  in  the  formation  of  the  pen.  The  shoulders 
and  scoop  should  be  cut  away  as  the  slit  is  made  to  advance  up 
the  barrel,  so  that  the  pen  may  preserve  its  proper  shape,  however 
often  it  be  mended.  The  pen  should  never  be  nibbed  on  the 
thumb  nail;  nor  should  its  point  be  pressed  against  the  ball  of  the 
right  thumb  when  cutting  out  the  shoulders:  the  edge  of  the  quill 
should  rather  be  held  against  the  side  of  the  thumb,  so  that  the 
knife  may  pass  clear  off  from  the  point;  thus  all  danger  of  cutting 
the  thumb  is  obviated.  In  charity  to  those  who  either  will  not, 
or  cannot  learn  how  to  make  or  mend  a  pen,  I  think  it  right  to 
observe,  that  a  little  instrument,  called  a  pen-maker,  may  now  be 
obtained  at  the  cutlers',  by  which,  either  operation  may  be  per- 
formed with  very  little  experience  or  manual  dexterity. 

The  systems  of  teaching  ladies  to  write  a  neat,  regular  running- 
hand,  which  have  been  generally  adopted  for  some  years  past, 
destroy  that  individuality  of  character  which  was  formerly  very 
much  noticed,  and  somewhat  admired; — all  those  who  have  been 
taught  by  the  same  master  forming  their  letters  so  much  in  the 
same  style,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  discover  any  difference 
in  their  writing;  females  of  the  same  class  in  life,  now  write, 
as  they  dress,  nearly  alike ;  but  whatever  may  be  the  objections 
made  to  modern  methods  of  tuition,  by  those  who  have  founded 
a  system  on  Cowley's  expression, — "  I  want  to  see  Mrs,  Jago's 
hand-writing,  in  order  that  I  may  know  her  temper,*' — it  appears 
to  me,  that  much  benefit  has  been  produced  by  the  inventors  and 
professors  of  the  new  modes  of  forming  the  hand-writing;  for  the 
letters  of  almost  every  lady  6f  these  days,  are  neat,  elegant,  and 
legible ;  whereas,  although  a  few  of  the  ladies  of  past  times  wrote 
in  characters  which  were  truly  beautiful,  the  greater  number  of 
them  perpetrated  rude  and  scarcely  intelligible  scrawls.  The 
destruction  of  individual  character,  by  the  adoption  of  one  general 
type  or  form  in  manuscript,  is  really  but  a  trifling  loss;  for  any 
peculiarity  in  the  characters,  indicative  of  the  mind,  temper,  or 
situation  in  life  of  the  writer,  could  but  rarely  occur.  Irrita- 
ble persons  frequently  write  with  great  neatness  and  precision; 
while  many  of  an  opposite  temperament  scribble  in  the  most 
hurried,  and  apparently  nervous,  manner  imaginable.  The  sig- 
29* 


344 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 


natures  of  several  who  have  been  remarkable  for  their  firmness, 
are  weak  and  vacillating;  and  those  of  others,  who  were  pos- 
sessed of  but  a  moderate  portion  of  resolution,  appear  firm  and 
decided.  One  of  the  most  beautiful,  elegant,  and  delicate  penmen 
of  the  present  day,  is  strong,  coarse,  and  powerful,  both  in  mind 
and  person.  It  is  almost  a  misery  to  look  upon  the  manuscript  of 
some  of  the  greatest  artists;  and  a  positive  pleasure  to  behold  the 
neat,  harmonious,  and  beautiful  characters  of  men  who  scarcely 
possess  a  single  idea  of  the  beautiful  in  form.  A  person  now 
living,  who  is  much  admired  for  the  careful,  steady  manner  in 
which  he  applies  himself  to  the  difficulties  of  a  profession,  that 
are  only  to  be  conquered  by  calm,  patient,  and  laborious  applica- 
tion, is  almost  unintelligible  on  paper:  we  see  the  signature  of  a 
sage,  but  it  looks  like  the  scrawl  of  an  idiot.  The  hand-writing  may, 
in  some  cases,  lay  the  writer  open  to  a  suspicion  of  being  deficient 
in  taste;  but,  with  submission  to  those  who  have  had  more  expe- 
rience, and  thought  more  deeply  on  the  subject  than  myself,  it 
appears  to  me  that  the  language  is  a  much  better  criterion  of  the 
writer's  mental  and  moral  qualities,  than  the  characters  in  which 
it  is  clothed. 


The  reader  may  very  properly  judge  for  herself  on  this  point 
by  referring  to  the  fac-similes  of  the  autographs  of  three  females, 
with  whose  names,  1  trust,  my  young  friends  are  sufficiently  versed 
in  English  history  to  be  acquainted:  without  reading  beyond  the 
close  of  the  present  sentence,  let  them  select,  from  the  three  figures, 
that  which  approaches  nearest  to  the  ideal  signature  which  .they 
have  conceived  of  Queen  Mary,  of  persecuting  notoriety. 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE 


345 


It  has  probably  occurred  to  the  reader,  that  we  often  form 
a  mental  picture  of  the  features  and  deportment  of  a  person 
whom  we  know  by  reputation,  which,  upon  a  subsequent  sight 
of  the  individual,  we  find  to  be  altogether,  or  in  the  main 
points,  decidedly  incorrect:  this  is  often  exactly  the  case  as  to 
signatures.  In  numerous  instances  we  fancy  the  autograph  of  a 
person  to  be  very  different  from  what  we  find  it;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  often  discover,  that  all  our  notions  of  a  corres- 
pondent's personal  appearance  are  destroyed  at  the  first  interview. 
(Fig.  9,  the  autograph  of  Queen  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  the 
Eighth ;  Fig.  10,  of  Henrietta  Maria,  consort  of  Charles  the  First; 
and  Fig.  11,  of  Mary,  consort  of  William  the  Third.) 

Before  concluding  my  remarks,  I  feel  in  some  measure  bound 
to  warn  my  readers  against  suffering  themselves  to  fall  into  bad 
positions  when  writing;  they  are  not  merely  ungraceful,  but  are 
calculated  to  produce  a  permanent  contortion  of  the  shape. 

12  13  14 


The  injurious  effect  produced  upon  the  figure  by  leaning  in  the 
manner  indicated  by  fig.  12,  must  be  evident  to  any  one,  who 
will  compare  the  position  of  fig.  12  with  that  of  fig.  14,  or  even 
fig.  13.  Mr.  Shaw,  a  gentleman  who  has  written  very  learnedly 
upon  this  subject,  recommenJs,  in  cases  where  the  body  has  a 
decided  inclination  to  the  left  when  writing,  to  equalize  the 
shoulders,  by  placing  a  book  under  the  left  elbow;  and,  if  this 
should  not  be  found  sufficient,  to  balance  a  book  on  the  head. 


The  manner  of  holding  a  pen  is   another  subject  that  merits 
consideration.     Although,  perhaps,  inal-position,  in  this  respect,  is 


346 


THE    ESCRUTOIRE. 


not  likely  to  produce  any  ultimate  deformity,  unless  the  hand  be 
more  than  usually  occupied  in  writing;  yet,  as  the  best  mode  of 
holding  the  pen  is  the  ruo^t  graceful,  and  affords  the  writer  greater 
facility  of  execution  than  any  other,  that  mode  should  be  acquired 
and  persevered  in.  A  glance  at  the  above  sketches  will,  doubtless, 
convince  the  reader,  that,  if  it  were  only  on  the  score  of  grace,  it 
is  well  to  hold  the  pen  in  a  proper  manner.  Many  ladies,  who 
have  not  been  sufficiently  instructed  at  the  period  of  their  com- 
mencing to  write,  when  the  hand  is  small  and  weak,  acquire  the 
crabbed  and  ungraceful  mode  of  holding  the  pen  designated  by 
fig.  15:  others,  either  from  the  same  cause,  or  through  inattention, 
after  they  have  been  emancipated  from  the  thraldom  of  the  writing- 
master,  place  the  pen  between  the  fore  and  middle  linger,  as 
represented  by  fig.  16.  The  proper  mode  of  holding  the  pen  is 
intended  to  be  shown  by  fig.  17;  which,  however,  can  be  much 
better  acquired  by  a  little  attention  to  the  instructions  of  an 
intelligent  writing-master,  than  from  any  engraving,  or  printed 
instructions. 


PAINTING. 


This  is  an  art  akin  to  Nature's  sell, 
So  mighty  in  its  means,  we  stand  prepared 
"  To  see  the  life  as  lively  mock'd,  as  ever 
Still  sleep  mock'd  death.  " 

F  all  those  attainments,  which  contribute  as 
well  to  the  gratification  of  the  senses,  as  to 
the  refinement  of  the  taste,  and  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  intellectual  powers,  the  art  of 
Painting  is,  perhaps,  the  best  adapted  to  the 
female  mind.  The  satisfaction  derivable  from 
the  contemplation  of  a  beautiful  work  of  art, 
possesses  a  peculiar  advantage:  it  is  renew- 
able at  pleasure,  without  any  continuance  of  the  exertion  by  which 
it  was  produced.  But  a  rare  combination  of  talent  with  industry, 
or,  at  least,  great  industry,  can  alone  lead  to  productions  which 
may  claim  admiration  beyond  the  circle  of  our  own  partial  relatives 
and  friends.  Experience  has  proved  the  impracticability  of  convey- 
ing a  knowledge  of  the  elementary  principles  of  this  art,  in  any 
manner,  so  as  to  supersede  the  useful  labours  of  the  drawing- 
master  ;  yet,  there  is  much  to  be  learned  before  the  pupil  can  go 
alone,  with  confidence,  after  the  period  when  his  attention  ceases, 
and  which  the  limited  duration  of  his  lessons  cannot  include:  to  this 
we  must  attribute  the  fact,  that  so  many,  who  make  a  fair  progress 


348  PAINTING. 

under  the  master's  eye,  either  never  attempt  any  performance  with 
the  pencil,  after  he  has  ceased  to  superintend  and  direct  their  studies, 
or  finding  themselves  embarrassed  at  the  outset,  abandon  the 
pursuit,  and  fancy  "  their  genius  docs  not  lie  that  way."  We  will 
presume  that  our  readers  have  gone;  through  the  usual  elementary 
course  of  instruction;  that  they  are  able  to  copy,  with  accuracy, 
the  outline,  at  least,  of  any  object  whirh  may  be  set  before  them: 
this,  and  much  more,  may  be  obtained  by  any  person  of  moderate 
abilities,  by  industry,  without  an  iota  of  that  much-misunderstood 
quality,  genius,  which  has  proved  an  ignis  fatuus  to  thousands. 
One  of  the  greatest  artists  this  country  has  produced,  was  right 
when  he  said, — "  Nothing  is  denied  to  well-directed  industry; — 
nothing  is  to  be  obtained  without  it."  Depend,  then,  wholly  upon 
your  own  exertions;  and  listen  rather  to  the  criticisms  of  the 
judicious,  than  to  the  praises  of  those  who  will  flatter  you  with 
assurances,  that  you  possess  intuitive  excellences,  which  may 
render  application  unnecessary.  To  recommend  a  proper  course 
of  study,  will  be  the  most  useful  purpose  to  which  these  few  pages 
can  be  devoted;  for  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with. 

Before  any  attempt  be  made  beyond  copying,  the  student  is 
enjoined  to  acquire  a  clear  view  of  the  leading  principles  of  per- 
spective, on  pain  of  committing  absurdities,  for  which  no  beauty  of 
colour  can  atone :  it  will  be  found  less  difficult  than  is  generally 
imagined.  Although  it  would  be  impossible  to  compress  into  our 
limits  all  the  explanations  and  diagrams  necessary  to  an  illustra- 
tion of  its  theory,  we  shall  subsequently  offer  a  few  observations, 
which,  we  trust,  will  prove  beneficial  to  the  student. 

The  minor  considerations  of  materials  and  preparations  for 
study  are  not  unimportant.  An  easy  position  of  the  body  is  not 
only  conducive  to  health,  but  leaves  the  mind  disengaged  for  the 
occupation,  which,  for  the  time,  should  wholly  engross  it.  The 
subject  to  be  copied  must  be  placed  directly  before  you,  and  the 
pencil  held  with  freedom.  Never  omit  straining  your  paper  on 
a  flat  board,  framed  together  so  as  not  to  warp:  this  may  be  done 
by  damping  with  a  clean  sponge,  which  expands  the  paper,  then 
pasting  or  gluing  down  the  edges,  and  suffering  it  to  dry  gra- 
dually :  but  a  neater  method  is  to  use  a  drawing-board,  with  a 
separate  frame,  which,  as  it  may  be  had  at  any  of  the  shops  which 
supply  artists  with  materials,  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe. 

The  first  point  to  be  determined,  either  in  copying  from  a 
picture,  or  from  nature,  is  the  horizontal  line,  or  that  height  in 
the  picture  with  which  the  eye  of  the  painter  is  supposed  to  be 


PAINTING.  349 

exactly  level.  In  the  representation  of  a  flat  country,  this  is  placed 
at  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  picture. 

The  extent  of  the  subject  to  be  included  in  a  drawing  from 
nature,  will  require  the  next  consideration;  and  this  is  found  to 
be  as  much  as  can  be  contained  in  an  angle  of  about  fifty  degrees, 
or  as  much  as  can  be  conveniently  seen  by  an  eye  in  a  fixed 
position,  without  turning  the  head:  nevertheless,  objects  may 
often  be  introduced  from  a  greater  distance,  as  trees,  &c.  to  improve 
a  composition,  especially  when  no  importance  is  attached  to  the 
identity  of  the  scene. 

There  are  two  points,  to  which  we  would  particularly  wish  to 
call  attention,  because  they  are  errors  that  greatly  retard  the 
progress:  one  is  a  want  of  command  of  hand;  the  other,  an  im- 
patience to  produce  a  finished  effect,  without  the  systematic  and 
gradual  process  necessary  to  the  production  of  a  good  picture. 
To  remedy  the  first  will  require  great  attention  and  practice,  if 
the  uncertainty  of  hand,  or  timidity  of  touch,  exist  in  a  great 
degree.  It  is  never  found  among  the  artists  of  necessity,  with 
whom  quantity  of  production  is  an  object  of  importance ;  as  deco- 
rative painters,  and  designers  for  furniture  and  manufactures: 
with  these,  freedom  and  precision  of  hand  are  seldom  wanting. 
We  advise  the  pupil  to  study  well  every  line  before  it  is  begun; 
to  determine  its  exact  course  and  bearing;  in  short,  to  look  from 
the  object  to  be  represented,  to  the  surface  on  which  it  is  to  be 
drawn,  again  and  again,  until  the  mind's  eye  transfers  it,  and 
the  imagination  sees  it  in  the  place  it  is  to  occupy:  that  is  the 
moment  to  be  seized ;  and  then  the  quicker  the  line  is  drawn 
the  better.  Large  objects  should  be  copied  on  common  sheets  of 
paper;  it  is  a  great  check  to  the  freedom  of  the  hand,  to  have  the 
materials  so  delicate,  or  costly,  as  to  produce  any  degree  of  fear 
about  spoiling  them.  This  advice,  however,  must  not  lead  you 
into  an  opposite  extreme.  Remember,  always,  that  correctness  is 
the  first  principle  of  the  art.  An  occasional  hour  or  two  would 
not  be  mispent,  if  occupied  in  drawing  straight  lines,  perpendi- 
cularly; diagonals,  parallel  to  each  other;  and  circles  without  the 
compasses.  This  observation  is  applicable  to  many  who  would  be 
ashamed  of  being  seen  so  employed;  who  have,  in  fact,  begun  to 
make  pictures,  without  sufficient  practice  in  the  rudiments  of  the 
art.  The  second  error  is  even  still  more  common,  from  the 
infant  who  lisps  his  petition  for  "  a  box  of  colours  to  paint  with," 
to  the  "  children  of  a  larger  growth,"  who  waste  their  time  in 
shadowing,  or  colouring,  upon  an  outline  which  might  mean  any- 


350  PAINTING. 

thing.  There  is  no  time,  in  the  progress  of  a  picture,  when  the 
forms  of  objects  can  be  so  conveniently  improved,  as  when  they 
are  in  a  faint  outline:  a  thorough  conviction  of  this,  and  expe- 
rience of  the  pleasure  of  modelling,  as  it  were,  into  substance,  by 
shadows,  and  adding  the  charms  of  colour  to  well-studied  forms, 
will  render  patient  labour  less  irksome,  by  anticipation  of  certain 
ultimate  success. 

In  your  early  practice  of  drawing  from  solid  objects,  it  would 
be  well  to  make  several  studies  from  a  white  globe,  placing  it  in 
different  lights,  and  having  only  one  window  in  the  room.  You 
will  find,  that  there  is  but  a  single  spot  upon  it  which  can  be 
represented  by  perfect  whiteness;  and  that  all  the  other  rays 
falling  obliquely  upon  a  receding  surface,  a  weakened  light  is 
received,  diminishing,  at  last,  into  absolute  shadow,  until  again 
relieved  by  reflection  from  surrounding  objects  on  the  opposite 
side.  For  a  globe,  a  billiard-ball  may  be  used;  a  cylinder  maybe 
made  of  a  roll  of  writing-paper ;  an  egg  will  serve  as  an  oval ;  and  a 
cone  may  be  obtained  by  rolling  up  a  sheet  of  paper  in  the  shape 
of  an  extinguisher.  Thus  the  models  are  easily  obtained;  and  the 
pupil  has  but  to  study  them  well,  and  she  will  imbibe  all  the 
principles  of  light,  shadow,  and  reflection.  She  may  then  proceed 
to  the  plaster  bust,  which  must  be  kept  perfectly  clean  and  free 
from  dust,  as  discolorations  greatly  embarrass  an  inexperienced 
practitioner.  The  outline  should  be  sketched  faintly,  at  first,  with 
soft  charcoal, — that  made  from  the  willow  is  best, — the  superfluity 
of  which  may  readily  be  removed  from  the  paper,  by  a  light  whisk 
of  the  handkerchief,  or  even  a  feather,  leaving  a  faint,  but  suffi- 
ciently distinct  representation:  this  should  be  repeated  till  the 
pupil  is  satisfied  with  the  form  and  proportions,  when  chalk  may 
be  used.  The  paper  selected  for  this  style  of  drawing  is  of 
various  tints, — some  persons  preferring  brown;  others,  blue;  a 
gray  is,  however,  our  favourite  colour,  as  it  forms  the  most  natural 
medium  between  the  black  and  white  chalk,  and  must  always 
appear  between  them.  The  soft  French  chalk  is  the  best  for 
general  purposes;  and  the  Italian  chalk,  which  is  harder,  for 
finishing,  or  where  great  neatness  is  required. 

As  the  general  proportions  of  the  human  figure  may  be  found 
in  all  books  upon  drawing,  we  shall  not  here  detail  them  elabo- 
rately; but  merely  give  those  which  must  be  constantly  borne  in 
mind,  or  referred  to  in  designing. 

The  human  figure  is  measured  by  a  scale  formed  from  the 
length  of  the  head:  in  a  full-grown  person,  the  wholo  height  is 


PAINTING.  351 

generally  eight  heads,  or  ten  faces.  The  head  is  subdivided  into 
four  parts,  each  of  which  is  the  length  of  the  nose ;  and  the  arms, 
when  extended,  will  cover  a  space  equal  to  the  whole  length  of 
the  figure.  The  breadth  varies  according  to  the  age,  strength, 
and  other  characteristics,  of  the  person.  The  hand  is  the  length 
of  the  face;  and  the  length  of  the  foot  is  generally  one-seventh 
part  of  the  whole  height.  These  proportions  must  not  be  under- 
stood to  apply  strictly  to  every  human  figure ;  but  are  deduced 
from  the  measurement  of  several  antique  statues,  the  acknow- 
ledged standards  of  ideal  beauty.  Although  these  general  propor- 
tions must  be  known,  they  are  only  useful,  as  the  rules  of  grammar 
are  in  language,  for  reference  in  cases  of  doubt:  it  would  be 
impossible  to  draw  a  figure  solely  by  the  application  of  them ;  in 
almost  every  position,  some  of  the  limbs  come  under  the  in- 
fluence of  fore-shortening,  and  measurement  is  impracticable.  The 
technical  term,  fore-shortening,  expresses  the  greatest  difficulty  a 
student  in  drawing  has  to  encounter :  because,  although  dependant 
upon  geometrical  principles,  no  practical  rules  can  be  laid  down 
for  its  execution:  it  is  the  art  of  representing,  in  perspective,  an 
infinite  series  of  curved  lines,  occasioned  by  the  developement  of 
the  bones  and  muscles.  There  is  but  one  mode  of  acquiring  skill 
in  this,  which  is  the  grand  characteristic  of  a  master  in  the  art  of 
design;  namely, — practice;  long  and  patient  practice  from  the 
same  figure.  We  will  suppose  a  statue, — as  the  Apollo  Belvidere, 
in  which,  one  arm  is  extended: — it  should  be  first  drawn  in  either 
of  the  side  views,  in  which  there  is  no  fore-shortening,  until  the 
student  is  well  acquainted  with  the  length,  substance,  and  ana- 
tomical developement  of  the  arm ;  it  should  then  be  so  placed,  that 
the  arm  advances  towards  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  and  be  drawn 
in  that  position.  These  exercises  should  be  varied  and  continued, 
until  the  student  can,  by  means  of  her  pencil,  give  a  clear  idea  of  a 
part  advancing  or  receding  without  the  assistance  of  shadow. 

In  the  study  of  the  human  figure,  heads,  hands,  and  feet  being 
the  parts  most  frequently  developed,  and  possessing  the  greatest 
expression,  should  be  studied,  as  large  as  in  life,  from  good  prints, 
which  may  be  had,  at  the  principal  shops,  very  cheap,  since  the 
fertility  of  lithography  has  enabled  artists  to  multiply  their  own 
works  without  the  intervention  of  the  engraver.  Too  much  care 
cannot  be  taken  in  the  choice  of  the  figures,  or  busts,  which  are 
used  as  subjects  for  study;  in  general,  the  casts  from  original 
antiques,  or  good  copies  of  them  upon  a  reduced  scale,  are  far 
more  useful  in  forming  the  taste,  than  the  fanciful,  or  affected 


352  PAINTING. 

creations  of  modern  talent.  There  is  nothing  to  fear,  in  point 
of  style,  from  the  cold  severity  of  the  ancients:  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  abstract  principles  of  beauty,  can  only  be  de- 
rived from  them;  individuality  of  character  is  an  after-consideration, 
and  must  be  acquired  by  studying  the  expression  of  the  passions 
in  the  looks  and  attitudes  of  those  about  us. 

In  copying  prints,  as  a  study  of  light  and  shadow,  it  will  be 
well  to  select  such  as  have  been  taken  from  sculpture ;  as  in  these 
alone  the  engraver  confines  himself  to  their  imitation.  In  prints, 
which  are  taken  from  paintings,  there  is  always  a  degree  of  strength 
given  to  the  engraving,  in  exact  proportion  to  the  local  tints  in  the 
picture:  this  is  termed  colour;  and,  when  skilfully  executed,  it 
contributes  greatly  to  give  an  idea  of  the  effect  of  the  picture 
imitated.  It  would  by  no  means  be  a  waste  of  time  to  copy,  in 
Indian  ink,  or  sepia,  a  good  print  or  two  in  each  style, — which  you 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing,  by  attending  to  the  above 
observations, — one  from  marble;  say,  for  instance,  an  antique 
statue,  or  bas-relief;  and  one  from  a  fine  painting. 

Although  it  would  be  wrong  in  us  to  encourage  the  smallest 
expectation  of  producing  a  good  original  picture,  unless  the  student 
be  acquainted  with  geometry,  perspective,  anatomy,  &c. — we  by 
no  means  intend  to  restrain  her  from  practising,  until  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  these  sciences  is  acquired:  practice  and  theory 
should  go  hand-in-hand;  the  sketch-book  cannot  be  too  much 
in  use ;  a  happy  thought  should  never  be  suffered  to  escape,  even 
before  the  manual  skill  is  acquired,  which  is  requisite  to  transfer 
it  to  paper  with  correctness:  indeed,  sketches  of  ideas,  recol- 
lections, and  hasty  observations,  will  always  form  a  class  in  the 
portfolio,  separate  from  the  more  careful  studies  of  form,  colour, 
light  and  shadow. 

'It  is  an  excellent  practice,  after  studying  any  subject,  to  put 
the  drawing  aside,  and  endeavour  to  make  another  from  recol- 
lection: this  is  the  first  step  towards  composition;  and  a  comparison 
of  the  two  studies  will  show  how  much  of  the  original  you  have 
made  your  own,  by  impressing  it  on  the  memory. 

The  next  step  towards  rising  above  the  character  of  a  mere 
copyist,  is  to  choose  an  example,  similar  in  style  and  general 
effect  to  one  you  wish  to  take  from  nature ;  and  placing  it  before 
you,  after  a  critical  examination  of  the  principles  upon  which  it 
has  been  executed,  to  endeavour  to  produce  a  similar  picture; — an 
imitation, — not  a  copy; — an  exercise  of  the  same  process,  upon  a 
composition  of  objects  altogether  different  from  those  of  the  original 


PAINTING.  353 

The  principles  of  light  and  shadow,  as  applied  to  landscapes, 
should  be  studied  in  sepia,  or  Indian  ink,  as  the  combination  of 
their  effects  with  colour  only  tends  to  perplex  the  student  in  a 
preliminary  course  of  study. 

In  drawing  from  nature,  the  principal  object,  or  that  which 
formed  the  inducement  in  choosing  the  subject,  must  be  carefully 
distinguished ;  and  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  mention  this,  as  it 
is  a  point  frequently  neglected  by  masters,  who  endeavour  to  make 
all  parts  of  the  picture  equally  interesting :  the  result  is,  that  the 
subordinate  divisions  attack  and  destroy  the  effect  of  the  principal. 
Simplicity  is  one  of  the  leading  characteristics  of  beauty.  Whatever 
the  principal  object  may  be, — for  instance,  a  building,  a  tree,  a 
mountain,  an  animal,  or  a  river, — place  it  so  as  to  receive  the 
strongest  light  and  shadow.  If  the  subject  have  been  selected  for  the 
sake  of  the  beauty  of  its  distance,  the  foreground  should  not  detract 
from  the  attention  due  to  it,  by  the  introduction  of  figures;  for  it 
must  be  particularly  noticed,  that  the  actions  of  human  nature 
are  so  much  more  interesting  than  inanimate  objects  in  general, 
that  even  a  peasant  reposing,  will  sometimes  balance,  in  point  of 
attraction,  an  object  many  times  larger,  and  which  is  intended 
by  the  artist  to  be  much  more  important,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
picture.  Everything  introduced,  which  is  not  subservient  to  some 
definite  and  well-understood  purpose,  is  prejudicial  to  the  general 
effect  of  the  whole.  The  spectator  should  never  be  suffered  to 
doubt,  for  a  moment,  the  intention  of  the  artist  in  the  choice  of 
his  subject. 

We  often  hear  young  practitioners  complain  of  the  difficulty  of 
drawing  trees:  they  should  be  made  the  subject  of  separate  studies; 
and  the  character  of  each  species  ought  to  be  carefully  distinguished. 
There  is  quite  as  much  difference  between  two  sorts  of  trees,  as  of 
animals :  a  tree,  in  the  foreground  of  a  picture,  should  never  be 
so  drawn,  as  to  leave  the  spectator  in  the  dark,  as  to  whether  it  is 
intended  to  represent  oak,  ash,  beech,  or  elm.  Excellent  prints, 
as  examples,  are  to  be  had ;  and  they  should  be  taken  out  into 
the  fields  by  the  student,  and  compared  with  nature.  The  next 
lesson  is  to  draw  the  tree  from  nature,  without  die  assistance  of 
the  print,  and  to  compare  the  drawing  and  print  together  after- 
wards. To  those  who  spend  much  of  their  time  in  the  country, 
(and  who  else  may  hope  to  succeed  in  landscape?)  we  will  point 
out  an  opportunity  which  they  possess  of  acquainting  themselves 
with  the  characters  of  trees : — There  are  many  fine  days,  early  in 
the  year,  when  the  weather  is  mild  enough  to  admit  of  sketching 


354  PAINTING. 

from  nature,  before  the  groves  are  clad  with  their  summer  verdure; 
and  if  accurate  drawings  be  made  at  this  season,  and  kept  till 
summer,  they  will  greatly  assist  in  studies  from  the  same  trees ; 
indeed,  it  will  be  found  a  most  pleasing,  as  well  as  an  instructive, 
practice,  to  compare  the  sketches  so  made,  in  spring,  with  the 
trees  themselves,  in  summer;  and  to  account  for  the  large  masses 
of  foliage,  by  tracing,  with  the  assistance  of  the  previous  sketch, 
the  branches,  now  hidden  from  the  sight,  from  which  they  spring 
and  still  derive  support. 

Many  good  sketches  are  lost,  or  produce  unsatisfactory  pictures, 
by  effects  being  chosen  unsuitable  to  the  character  of  the  scenery. 
It  may  happen,  that  a  castle,  or  massive  building,  has  been  drawn 
in  the  morning,  and  it  may  have  a  dull,  heavy  effect ;  when  the 
same  structure,  indistinctly  seen  in  the  repose  of  evening,  or  the 
solemnity  of  twilight,  would  convey  to  the  mind  an  impression  of 
grandeur  and  gloomy  majesty.  It  is  right  to  sketch  at  all  times 
and  in  all  seasons ;  but  it  is  the  province  of  an  artist,  when  he 
selects  from  the  sketch-book  a  subject  for  painting,  to  determine 
under  what  aspect  it  would  appear  to  the  greatest  advantage ;  and 
not  to  be  influenced  by  the  accidental  circumstance  of  having  seen 
it  in  one  effect  only.  Painting  a  scene  from  nature,  is  some- 
thing more  than  copying.  A  morning  effect  is  suitable  to  a  com- 
position of  pleasing  forms:  busy  scenes  are  consistent  with  the 
bright,  open  light  of  mid-day:  and  repose  is  in  harmony  with 
the  softness  of  evening.  In  the  representation  of  a  low,  flat 
country,  with  a  single  object  standing  unsupported,  as  the  subject 
of  the  picture,  a  great  interest  is  required  in  the  sky;  while  a 
scene  full  of  detail  or  attraction  in  itself,  should  not  exhibit  any 
atmospheric  phenomena  calculated  to  withdraw  the  attention  from 
the  principal  objects. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a  few  general  hints  upon  the 
theory  and  use  of  colours.  There  are  but  three  primitive  colours, 
— red,  yellow,  and  blue:  from  these  all  the  others  are  derived. 
The  combination  of  red  and  yellow  produces  orange ;  of  red  and 
blue,  purple;  and  of  blue  and  yellow,  green.  The  iris,  or  rain- 
bow, is  divided,  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  into  360  parts,  of  which 
violet  occupies  80;  indigo,  40;  blue,  60;  green,  60;  yellow,  48, 
orange,  27,  and  red,  45.  These  observations  relate  to  scientific 
arrangement;  practical  utility,  which  is  our  principal  object,  re- 
quires that  we  should  treat  of  them  as  pigments,  or  the  substances 
by  which  the  local  tints  of  objects  may  be  pictorially  expressed. 
The  old  treatises  on  water-colours,  which  contain  directions  for 


PAINTING.  355 

grinding  them,  may  be  considered  as  obsolete; — colours  being  now 
manufactured  by  men,  in  whom  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  is 
united  to  that  of  the  qualities  desirable  to  a  painter,  and  who 
produce  colours,  in  cakes,  which  are  both  brilliant  and  permanent. 
Oil-colours  may  also  be  purchased  ready-ground;  and,  as  many 
ladies  now  practice  with  these,  a  few  hints  on  painting  in  oil  may 
be  acceptable  to  some  of  our  readers. 

If  portrait  be  the  ultimate  object  of  the  student,  the  best 
preparatory  course,  after  a  knowledge  of  drawing  in  chalks  is 
acquired,  will  be  to  practice  from  busts,  with  a  single  colour,  and 
white.  Raw  umber  will  answer  the  purpose,  upon  sheets  of  milled 
board,  such  as  are  used  in  binding  books :  they  may  be  bought  at 
any  stationer's ;  and  as  they  are  of  a  dark  colour,  and  would  not 
show  black  chalk  distinctly,  the  drawings  on  them  may  be  made  with 
pipe-clay  rolled  up  into  crayons.  This  mode  of  practising  possesses 
this  advantage,  that  it  may  be  pursued  by  lamp-light,  when  colours 
would  not  be  distinguishable.  A  good  lamp  is  better  than  candles, 
as  it  always  keeps  the  same  light.  Care  must  be  taken,  if  there 
be  any  other  lights  in  the  room,  that  they  are  shaded,  so  as  not 
to  illuminate  and  destroy  the  shadows  on  the  bust;  and  that, 
every  evening,  the  light  and  the  figure  are  placed  in  precisely  the 
same  relative  positions,  as  the  slightest  deviation  will  entirely  de- 
stroy all  that  has  been  before  done.  The  management  of  the 
gradations  of  light  and  shade,  and  the  use  of  the  brush,  will  be 
quite  sufficient  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  student  for  some- 
time, without  distracting  it  by  a  variety  of  tints. 

The  principal  colours  used  in  portrait-painting  are  flake-white, 
ivory-black,  ultra-marine,  cobalt  blue,  yellow  ochre,  light  red, 
vermilion,  lake,  Indian  ink,  burnt  umber,  burnt  terra-sienna, 
Vandyke  brown,  Naples  yellow,  and  Prussian  blue.  Such  of  these 
as  are  required,  according  to  the  complexion  to  be  imitated,  are 
laid  round  the  palette,  and  tints  are  composed  by  mixing  them 
with  each  other,  and  with  white.  Light  red  and  white  is  the 
best  general  tint  for  the  ground  of  the  flesh,  which  may  be  altered 
to  the  complexion  by  an  addition  of  vermilion,  or  brown  ochre, 
as  the  case  may  require.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  give  any  useful 
rules  for  mixing  the  tints ;  various  methods  are  adopted  by  dif- 
ferent artists,  and  experience  it  the  only  guide:  some  use  a  mixture 
of  ivory  black,  Indian  red,  with  a  little  lake  and  white,  as  a  ground- 
tint  for  the  shadows  in  flesh,  while  others  paint  the  whole  face,  or 
figure,  with  various  combinations  of  light  red,  Naples  yellow,  ultra- 
marine, vermilion,  lake,  and  brown  ochre,  with  Vandyke  brown 
30* 


356  PAINTING. 

The  lights  should  be  painted  with  a  strong  body  of  colour,  and 
the  shadows  kept  thin  and  transparent.  To  dilute  the  colour 
on  the  palette,  a  mixture  is  used  of  equal  quantities  of  fine  pale 
drying  oil  and  mastic  varnish:  if  both  these  be  good,  it  is  remark- 
able that  though  perfectly  clear  when  separate,  they  form  a  strong 
jelly  when  slightly  stirred  together. 

The  shadows  of  objects  are,  strictly  speaking,  of  no  colour; 
that  is  to  say,  shadow  being  but  the  absence,  or  interception,  of 
the  direct  rays  of  light,  colour  is  never  increased  by  it.  In  water- 
colours,  the  general  breadth  of  shadow  is  best  imitated  by  a  neutral 
tint  of  a  cool  retiring  colour.  Artists  mix  these  tints  in  various 
manners:  indigo  and  Indian  red  are  frequently  used  for  this 
purpose;  but  whatever  mixture  be  adopted,  it  is  an  invariable 
object  to  produce  a  clean,  pearly  hue,  which  will  unite  agreeably 
with  either  the  warm  or  cold  colours. 

Objects  seen  against  a  strong  light  assume  a  neutral  tint,  while 
those  upon  which  a  strong  light  falls  display  the  beauty  of  their 
local  colours:  the  former,  also  (as  well  as  those  under  the  influ- 
ence of  shadows  falling  upon  them,)  should  not  be  made  out  too 
distinctly ;  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  require  the  utmost  care  in 
finishing. 

There  are  many  styles,  or  modes,  of  executing  miniatures:  we 
find  some  in  which  but  little  is  attempted,  yet  that  little,  if  well 
performed,  answers,  as  well  as  an  elaborate  picture,  the  purpose  of 
perpetuating  the  recollections  of  private  friendship.  To  this  class 
belong  the  beautiful  drawings  we  sometimes  see  on  card-paper; 
in  which  the  figure  is  only  sketched  in  pencil,  and  the  head 
lightly  tinted.  A  free  slight  style  seems  most  suitable  to  these ; 
as  elaborate  finishing,  and  the  full  force  of  colour,  invariably  ap- 
pear heavy  upon  a  white  ground.  Miniatures  intended  to  be 
highly  finished,  should  be  painted  on  ivory;  which  may  be  ob- 
tained in  sheets,  either  at  the  colour-shops,  or  of  the  ivory-turners: 
it  is  prepared  by  rubbing  it  with  cuttle-fish  bone,  or  with  finely- 
powdered  and  sifted  pumice-stone,  to  take  off  the  polish;  after 
which  it  must  never  be  touched  with  the  fingers.  Some  artists 
previously  bleach  it,  which  is  done  by  laying  it  on  a  flat  table, 
between  two  sheets  of  clean  paper,  and  placing  upon  it  a  common 
iron,  such  as  is  used  by  laundresses, — made  only  so  hot  that  the 
hand  can  bear  it  for  a  few  seconds, — frequently  moving  it  about, 
and  turning  the  ivory.  It  must  be  very  particularly  observed, 
that  if  the  heat  be  too  long  continued,  the  ivory  will  become  opaque, 
and,  consequently,  spoiled.  When  it  is  sufficiently  white,  a  flat 


PAINTING.  357 

weight  should  be  kept  upon  it,  until  it  cools,  in  order  to  prevent 
its  warping.  It  may,  afterwards,  be  fixed  upon  a  card  by  gum- 
water:  the  edges  only  should  be  touched  with  the  gum,  as  it 
would  appear  dark  and  unpleasant  if  the  gum  extended  under  the 
flesh.  If  only  the  bust  be  represented,  it  will  generally  be  advisable 
to  make  it  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  ivory,  and  to  place  the 
bottom  of  the  face  in  the  centre:  this,  however,  must  be  varied, 
if  the  sitter  be  above  or  below  the  middle  size;  as  an  idea  may 
be  conveyed  of  the  stature  of  the  person,  by  placing  the  chin 
above  or  below  the  centre  of  the  picture.  Some  of  the  miniature- 
painters  make  their  outline  on  paper,  and  fix  it  under  the  ivory ; 
the  transparency  of  which  enables  them  to  trace  it  with  a  faint 
colour  on  the  surface.  This  seems  to  be  a  good  practice  for  those 
who  cannot  draw  a  likeness  without  many  alterations  and  cor- 
rections, by  which  the  surface  of  the  ivory  might  be  injured. 

The  colours  should  be  used  with  soft  water.  Ultra-marine  and 
the  madder-lakes  form  a  delicate  pearly  tint  for  the  flesh,  with 
which  the  shadows  may  be  generally  defined;  the  reflections  must 
be  of  a  warmer  hue ;  for  these,  raw  terra-sienna,  or  dark  ochre, 
may  be  used.  Indian  red  is  a  very  useful  colour,  but  of  a  heavy 
body,  and,  in  miniature-painting,  it  requires  to  be  used  with  great 
delicacy.  The  colours  prepared  from  madder,  both  reds  and 
browns,  are  permanent,  and  quite  brilliant  enough  for  the  local 
tints  of  flesh;  except,  in  some  instances,  when  a  few  touches  of 
carmine  lake  may  be  required;  as  on  the  lips,  for  instance,  or 
upon  a  complexion  of  a  peculiar  bloom.  The  colours  should  be 
laid  on  gradually,  either  by  light  touches,  which  method  is  termed 
hatching;  or  by  dots,  called  stippling.  The  greatest  care  is  ne- 
cessary to  avoid  leaving  a  body  of  colour  on  the  ivory;  in  fact, 
it  is  well  to  dilute  the  colour,  until  it  becomes  thin,  and  to  use  it 
from  the  top,  so  as  only  to  take  up  the  finest  and  least  substantial 
part.  It  is  an  expeditious  method  of  beginning  a  picture,  to  lay 
in  broad  washes  of  colour;  observing  to  allow  for  finishing,  by 
leaving  them  lighter  than  the  final  effect  intended  to  be  produced, 
as  the  full  tone  of  colour  must  be  very  gradually  approached. 

In  painting  white  drapery,  pearls,  &c.  as  ivory  is  not  perfectly 
colourless,  it  is  necessary  to  mark  the  highest  lights  by  a  little 
permanent  white.  By  previous  studies,  for  which  the  ball,  cylin- 
der, &c.  have  been  recommended,  the  student  will  have  discovered 
how  small  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  any  rounded  object  admits 
of  the  full  brilliancy  of  absolute  light:  in  painting  upon  ivory 
the  most  projecting  point  in  such  a  light,  may  approach  to  shining ; 


358  PAINTING. 

and  if  a  colour  have  been  washed  over  the  whole,  it  may  require 
to  be  removed  from  the  points :  this  may  be  done  by  means  of  a 
sharp  scraper,  or  penknife. 

One  of  the  little  inconveniences  which  learners  have  to  contend 
with,  in  painting  upon  ivory,  arises  from  the  colour  merely  lying 
on  the  surface  with  so  little  adhesion;  this  requires  some  care: 
a  touch  must  never  be  repeated,  until  the  colour,  previously  laid 
on,  is  perfectly  dry,  or  it  will  bring  off  the  latter,  and  leave  a  spot 
of  clean  ivory. 

Draperies  of  a  dark  hue  are  often  painted,  for  the  sake  of 
expedition,  with  a  body-colour,  made  by  mixing  white  with  it ; 
in  addition  to  which,  blues  and  blacks  require  Indian  red  to  coun- 
teract their  coldness.  This  body-colour  will  dry  lighter  than  might 
be  supposed  from  appearances  when  it  is  first  laid  on;  and  the 
shadows  may  be  glazed  over  it  with  Indian  ink,  or  ivory  black 
and  lake,  diluted  with  water  only,  without  any  mixture  of  white 
or  gum.  The  darkest  shadows  may  be  produced  by  gum-water, 
but  this  depth  must  be  reserved  for  the  last  sharp  touches.  It  is 
necessary  for  us  to  observe,  that  some  artists  paint  the  draperies 
transparent,  as  well  as  the  faces.  A  powerful  magnifying-glass 
should  be  used,  in  order  to  discover  and  remove  any  particles 
of  the  colours;  as  miniature-paintings,  in  addition  to  all  the 
requisites  which  they  ought  to  possess  in  common  with  larger 
pictures,  are  expected  to  bear  the  closest  examination. 

PERSPECTIVE. 

The  science  of  Perspective  is  the  most  powerful  auxiliary  to 
the  art  of  Painting;  it  is  founded  on  immutable  principles,  and 
never  can  be  subject  to  the  caprices  of  fashion,  or  admit  of  the 
modification  of  individual  taste;  it  may  be  defined  "  The  art  of 
representing,  on  a  plane  surface,  the  forms  of  objects  as  they 
appear  to  the  sight."  Our  fair  readers,  of  more  developed  intel- 
lect, will  pardon  our  answering  a  question  which  may  be  supposed 
to  proceed  from  their  younger  sisters, — "  Do  our  eyes  then  deceive 
us! — and  do  not  objects  appear  to  the  sight,  as  they  really  are!" 
We  reply, — "  Your  eyes  do  not  deceive  you;  but  the  mind  sup- 
plies the  deficiency  of  information  derivable  from  them."  Look 
down  any  long  street,  and  observe  how  the  houses  and  people 
seem  to  diminish  as  they  recede  from  the  eye:  you  are  not  de- 
ceived by  this  appearance ;  for  you  have  been  at  the  other  end  of 
the  street,  and  know  that  the  houses  and  people  are  as  high  a? 


PAINTING.  359 

those  at  this  end:  but  this  is  the  knowledge  of  the  mind,  not 
the  information  of  the  eye ;  and  a  person  who  had  been  always 
blind,  and  suddenly  received  sight,  would  not  form  any  idea  of 
the  apparent  diminution  of  objects  on  account  of  their  distance, 
but  would  fancy  them  equally  close  to  the  eye,  and  less  in  size : 
this  has  been  experienced. 

To  find  rules  by  which  the  exact  degree  of  this  apparent  dimi- 
nution may  be  determined,  is  the  object  of  our  study.  Practice 
must  accompany  theory  at  every  step:  a  drawing-board,  a  set  of 
mathematical  instruments,  and  a  knowledge  of  geometry, — at 
least  as  much  as  will  enable  us  to  construct  the  most  usual  figures, 
are  indispensable. 

In  commencing  the  practice  of  Perspective,  the  boundary  of 
the  picture  must  be  considered  as  an  aperture,  through  which  the 
object  to  be  represented  is  to  be  viewed;  and  the  surface  of  the 
picture  itself  as  a  transparent  plane,  or  sheet  of  glass,  upon  which 
the  outlines  of  the  objects  seen  through  it  are  to  be  delineated. 
The  extreme  distance  where  the  earth,  if  perfectly  level,  would 
appear  to  meet  the  sky,  gives  the  horizontal  line,  which  must  be 
as  high  in  the  picture  as  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  Agreeably  to 
this  rule,  in  drawing  from  nature,  if  the  view  be  taken  from  an 
elevated  situation,  the  horizontal  line  must  be  high  in  the  picture; 
and  if  the  subject  be  considerably  raised  above  the  eye  of  the 
spectator  (as  a  mountain,  or  castle)  the  horizontal  line  should  be 
proportionately  low; — taking  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  picture 
as  the  average  place  of  the  horizontal  line  when  the  scene  is  level. 
Now  observe,  the  earth,  if  level,  (perhaps  the  sea,  being  subject 
to  no  inequalities,  is  a  better  example)  appears  to  rise  as  it  re- 
cedes, till  it  becomes  no  longer  visible;  and  the  sky,  as  before 
observed,  descends,  till  they  unite,  or  mutually  vanish  in  the  same 
line:  the  horizontal  line  is  then  the  vanishing  line  of  all  level 
planes  parallel  to  the  earth  and  sky,  whether  these  level  planes  are 
above  or  below  the  eye.  Were  you  to  stand  at  one  end  of  a  long 
room,  and  imagine  the  opposite  end  to  be  removed,  and  the  ceiling 
and  floor  to  be  infinitely  protracted,  the  one  would  appear  to 
descend,  and  the  other  to  ascend,  until  the  view  of  both  would  be 
lost  precisely  in  the  line  of  the  horizon.  Leaving  the  considera- 
tion of  the  ceiling  and  floor  for  awhile,  let  us  observe  the  side 
walls  of  the  room;  which,  being  perpendicular  planes,  parallel  to 
each  other,  have  one  common  vanishing  line;  for,  if  infinitely 
extended,  they  would  seem  to  meet  in  a  line;  and  the  point 
where  this  perpendicular  line  crosses  the  horizontal  line,  is  called 


360 


PAINTING. 


the  point  of  sight,  being  directly  opposite  to  the  eye  of  the  spec- 
tator. To  this  important  point,  all  parallel  planes,  whether  per- 
pendicular, horizontal,  or  oblique,  converge,  if  they  go  directly 
from  the  spectator  towards  the  horizon.  The  principal  visual 
ray  is  the  line  of  sight  extending  from  the  eye  of  die  spectator 
to  this  point. 

The  base  line  is  the  bottom  of  the  picture. 
The  point  of  distance  must  now  be  considered:  the  meaning 
of  this  term  is,  the  distance  of  the  eye  from  the  imaginary  tran- 
sparent plane,  or  the  picture  which  is  to  represent  it;  and  this 
distance  must  never  be  less  than  the  length  of  the  picture,  because 
that  distance  gives  the  greatest  possible  angle,  within  which  ob- 
jects can  be  distinctly  seen  at  one  view. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  practical  illustrations ;  earnestly  re- 
commending to  the  student  to  practise  the  examples  upon  a  larger 
scale,  in  preference  to  merely  going  over  them  in  the  mind. 

Let  it  be  required  to  give  a  representation,  in 
perspective,  of  a  superficial  square ;  one  side  of 
which  shall  be  placed  against  the  base  line  of 
the  picture  (Fig.  1.)  The  size  and  proportions 
of  the  parallelogram,  or  boundary  line  of  the 


picture  (Fig.  2,)  being  fixed  upon,  the  horizontal  line  (H,  H)  and 
the  distance  of  the  picture  (D)  must  be  determined:  on  the  centre 

of  the  horizontal  line  mark 
the  point  of  sight  (S,)  and 
extend  the  line  either  to 
the  right  or  left,  at  least 
far  enough  to  receive  the 
point  of  distance,  which  we 
will  assume  to  be  the  near- 
est admissible  :  viz. — the 
length  of  the  picture,  as 
before  observed.  Mark  this  distance  on  the  line  (D,)  measuring 
from  the  point  of  sight  (S,)  and  let  fall  a  perpendicular  from  that 
point  to  the  base  line  at  (B.)  Take  half  one  side  of  the  square, 
and  mark  it  on  each  side  of  the  point  (B ; )  draw  lines  from  these 
points  to  the  point  of  sight  (S.)  The  angle  thus  formed  is  the 
perspective  representation  of  the  two  lines,  forming  the  sides  of 
the  square  (a  a,  Fig.  1,)  supposing  them  infinitely  extended;  for 
though  we  know  that  they  are  parallel  to  each  other,  yet  to  an  eye 
opposite  to  the  point  (S,)  and  at  the  given  distance,  they  would 
appear  to  approach  each  other,  in  receding,  until  they  would  vanish 


PAINTING. 


361 


at  that  point.  Our  present  business  is  to  ascertain  how  much  of 
the  base  of  this  triangle  is  a  representation  of  the  square.  Rule 
a  line  from  the  point  of  distance  D  to  the  opposite  angle  2, 
and  from  the  point  of  intersection  at  3,  draw  a  horizontal  line 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  triangle  (4) :  the  figure  thus  formed 
will  be  the  true  representation  required.  To  avoid  complexity  of 
lines,  and  lead  the  student  gradually  forward,  we  have  given  but 
one  square,  which  may  be  considered  a  stone  of  the  pavement,  or 
any  square  object  lying  on  the  ground,  in  which  the  surface  only 
is  considered.  To  represent  a  second  square,  of  the  same  size,  lying 
immediately  beyond  the  first,  we  have  only  to  consider  the  line 
3  4  as  the  base  line,  and  by  proceeding  as  before,  a  second  abridge- 
ment of  a  square  will  be  found.  We  now  proceed  to  show  how  a 
series  of  these  squares,  as  a  pavement,  or  chess-board,  may  be  pro- 
duced (Fig.  3.)  Repeat  the  process,  as  in  fig.  1,  upon  a  larger  scale; 

then  divide  the  base  line 
into  as  many  equal  parts 
as  are  required,  for  one  side, 
and  from  these  points  draw 
lines  to  the  point  of  sight; 
these  lines  will  cross  the 
oblique  line  A  B ;  and  hori- 
zontal  lines  passed  through 
the  intersections,  will  divide  the  whole  into  the  number  of  squares 
required. 

Our  next  lesson  is  to  represent  the  same  figure  when  placed 
with  one  corner  towards  the  eye  (Fig.  4.) 
B 


The  base  line,  the  horizontal  line,  the  point  of  sight,  and  per- 
pendicular from  it  to  the  base,  are  to  be  prepared  as  before; 
the  point  of  distance  is  then  to  be  set  off  on  the  horizon  on  each 
side  of  the  point  of  sight.  The  same  number  of  parts  as  before 
must  next  be  measured  on  each  side  of  A  in  the  base-line,  and 
from  each  of  these  divisions,  lines  drawn  to  the  point  of  sight. 
From  die  point  A,  which  forms  the  nearest  angle  of  the  figure. 


362 


PAINTING. 


lines  are  then  to  be  drawn  to  the  points  of  distance  B  B ;  and 
from  the  intersections  of  these  lines  with  those  first  drawn,  rule 
other  lines  to  the  points  of  distance,  and  the  work  is  performed. 
There  are  various  scientific  modes  of  putting  a  circle,  into 
perspective;  we  shall  give  the  most  simple  (Figs.  5  and  6.)  It 
will  be  obvious,  that  a  circle  seen 
from  any  other  point  than  one  per- 
pendicular to  its  centre  must  appear 
elliptical.  Make  a  square  of  the 
exact  size  to  contain  the  circle,  and 
describe  the  circle  within  it.  Div  ide 
the  square  into  a  number  of  smaller  squares,  and  put  this  reti- 
culated square  into  perspective,  as  in  fig.  6,  and  a  correct  eye 
will  enable  us,  by  noticing  what  parts  of  the  cross  lines  the  circle 
passes  through  in  the  square,  to  describe  an  ellipsis,  in  the 
perspective  representation  of  it,  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  our 
purpose. 

We  will  now  attempt  to  represent  a  cube,  which,  we  scarcely 
need  remind  our  readers,  is  a  solid  contained  by  six  equal  square 
sides, — in  short,  a  square  block ;  the  squares  we  have  hitherto 
treated  of  being  merely  superficial.  The  picture  being  prepared 
as  before,  by  which  we  must  be  always  understood  to  mean,  that 
the  horizontal  line,  points  of  sight,  distance,  &c.  are  determined, 
we  will  place  three  cubes  on  the  base  line. — one  in  a  direct 
point  of  view,  and  one  in  each  of  the  oblique  views  (Fig.  7,)  and 
i;  7  will  suppose  them  (to 

D  simplify  the  example) 
of  equal  size,  and  below 
the  horizon.  In  the 
cube  standing  in  the 
middle,  we  have  merely 
to  produce  a  represent- 
ation of  the  top,  for  the 
sides  retreat  in  a  direct  line  towards  the  point  of  sight,  and  this 
was  precisely  our  first  problem ;  for  the  top  of  the  cubic  figure 
is  but  a  superficial  square,  of  which  a  b  is  the  base:  but  the 
two  outside  cubes,  in  proportion  as  they  are  placed  wider  apart, 
have  more  or  less  of  one  of  the  sides  seen.  We  will  draw  lines 
then  from  a  b  of  the  centre  cube ;  and  from  the  lower  corner  of  each 
of  those  placed  to  the  right  and  left,  to  the  point  of  sight  C,  and 
oblique  lines  from  a,  a,  a,  to  the  point  of  distance  D,  which  will  give 
intersections  opposite  e  e,  through  which  horizontal  lines  being 


PAINTING.  363 

drawn,  the  representation  of  the  tops  of  the  cubes  will  be  complete, 
and  we  have  only  to  let  fall  perpendiculars  from  the  points  of 
intersection,  and  the  sides  of  the  cubes  are  obtained. 

The  leading  principles  of  perspective  being  rendered  familiar 
by  practice,  it  is  not  necessary,  in  every  case,  to  go  through  the 
whole  process ;  the  eye  becomes  correct,  and  any  violation  of  its 
rules  is  offensive  to  the  sight. 

Examples  might  be  multiplied  to  any  extent;  but  as  it  would 
be  impossible  to  compress  within  our  limits  a  complete  treatise  on 
perspective,  we  have  preferred  giving  such  an  introduction  as  may 
serve  to  show,  that  the  difficulties  of  the  really  useful  part  of  this 
science  are  not  so  great  as  they  are  generally  thought  to  be;  and 
we  are  sure,  that  those  of  our  readers  who  have  accompanied  us  in 
this  short  excursion  into  the  terra  incognita  of  the  mathematics, 
will  be  induced  to  extend  their  researches ;  for  this  purpose,  we  re- 
commend them  to  the  guidance  of  Ferguson,  Malton,  or  Dr.  Brook 
Taylor,  whose  learned  and  comprehensive  works  have  left  little 
for  their  successors  to  do  but  to  familiarize  the  subject,  and  divest  it 
of  apparent  difficulties. 

In  conclusion,  we  beg  most  sincerely  to  recommend  the  study 
of  the  art  of  drawing  to  our  young  readers,  not  less  for  the  grace- 
ful and  agreeable  employment  it  will  afford  them,  than  for  its 
actual  utility,  which  is,  indeed,  so  manifest  on  many  occasions, 
that  we  do  not  scruple  to  say,  a  knowledge  of  drawing  ought  to 
be  acquired  in  youth  as  a  practical  art,  like  that  of  writing;  it  is, 
indeed,  a  kind  of  short-hand,  which  is  often  as  superior  to  writing 
in  clearness,  as  it  is  in  brevity.  It  frequently  occurs  that  we  find  it 
impossible  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  what  we  wish  to  describe, 
through  the  medium  of  words,  and  after  much  exertion  give  up 
the  attempt  in  despair,  when  a  few  moments'  exercise  of  a  mo- 
derate degree  of  skill  in  drawing  would  elucidate  our  otherwise 
ineffectual  description  at  a  glance.  Two  strokes  of  a  pencil,  says 
a  periodical  essayist,  will  often  tell  a  tale  of  unknown  length,  and 
there  are  many  tales  which  cannot  be  told  without  it: — many 
persons  of  acute  observation,  and  profound  science  have  ploughed 
the  depths  of  ocean,  scaled  the  Alps,  the  Andes,  and,  as  the  same 
lively  writer  observes,  run  all  over  the  world,  to  disennui  them- 
selves, and  bring  home  journals;  and  when  the  journals  have 
generated  a  quarto,  or  half-a-dozen  quartos,  nine-tenths, — and  the 
better  part  too, — of  the  story  are  still  to  seek!  There  are  beasts, 
and  buildings,  and  men,  and  plants  and  serpents,  and  gorgons, 
and  chimeras,  and  countries  of  all  kinds, — architecture  that  we 
31 


364 


PAINTING. 


are  dying  to  understand, — monuments  from  the  time  of  Nimrod, 
— mountains,  whose  heads  do  reach  the  skies; — and  what  is  it  all 
when  told! — Nothing! — And  merely  for  the  want  of  a  few  scraps 
of  paper,  and  a  half-penny  worth  of  Indian  ink,  properly  distributed 
over  them.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  acquirement  of  this 
art  would  ever  become  of  such  value  to  our  young  readers,  as  to  a 
Parke,  a  Humboldt,  or  a  Banks,  yet  it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  impor- 
tant utility  to  them,  if  they  think  fit  to  make  use  of  the  advantages 
it  affords.  A  flower,  a  shell,  or  almost  any  natural  object,  can 
be  much  better  drawn  than  described;  and  a  sketch-book  filled 
by  one  who  has  not  attained  extraordinary  proficiency  in  the  art 
of  design,  will  afford  a  more  vivid  and  accurate  series  of  scenes, 
than  the  most  finished  account  of  them  in  the  leaves  of  a  journal. 


MUSIC. 


When  Music,  heavenly  maid !  was  young, 
While  yet  in  early  Greece  she  sung; 
The  Passions  oft,  to  hear  her  shell, 
Throng'd  around  her  magic  cell. 

UNDOUBTEDLY,  the  most  remarkable  charac- 
teristic of  the  musical  taste  of  the  nineteenth 
century  is  the  intellectual  elevation  which 
the  art  has  reached.  The  love  of  music  has 
become  so  identified  with  feeling, — a  Quix 
otic  notion,  perhaps, — that  few  can  be  found 
honest  enough  to  confess  an  indifference  to  it 
through  want  of  ear,  and  insensibility  to  melodious  and  harmonious 
expression.  The  undisguised,  unblushing  hater  of  music  is  unknown  ; 
— a  very  level  taste,  or,  rather,  affectation  of  taste,  runs  through  the 
higher  and  middle  circles;  and  every  evening  party,  or  concert 
room,  furnishes  examples  of  the  enraptured  amateur,  who  applauds 
and  yawns  by  turns.  Yet,  the  very  existence  of  this  affectation 
proves  the  preponderance  of  opinion,  among  the  refined  part  of  so- 
ciety, in  favour  of  music.  The  early  cultivation  of  the  art  which  is 
now  adopted,  we  may  naturally  suppose,  will  extinguish  the  class 
of  hearers  to  which  we  allude ;  as  the  ear  becomes  well  trained,  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  science  is  acquired,  music  will 
make  the  proper  impression,  and  not  convey  the  merely  indefinite, 


366  MUSIC. 

physical  pleasure,  which  animals  are  said  to  derive  from  it,  in  com- 
mon with  mankind.  Since,  then,  music  is  notoriously  neither  in 
want  of  friends  nor  supporters,  all  that  can  be  desired,  is,  that  its 
intellectual  dignity  shall  be  generally  acknowledged;  for  where 
this  language  of  the  soul  conveys  but  a  momentary  gratification, 
without  influence  upon  the  heart  or  understanding,  the  object  of 
it  is  but  misunderstood  and  abused. 

The  three  qualifications  necessary  to  the  proper  enjoyment  and 
appreciation  of  passionate  and  expressive  music,  are,  a  good  ear, 
a  quick  sensibility,  and  a  refined  taste.  There  is  also  a  kind  of 
music  addressing  itself  principally  to  the  understanding,  such  as 
Canons,  or  pieces  of  learned  contrivance,  practised  by  the  old 
masters ;  who,  in  their  monastic  retirement,  cfespising  ease,  gloried 
only  in  making  their  uncouth  melodies  march  in  certain  directions, 
measured, — if  the  expression  may  be  allowed, — by  line  and  rule. 
These  stiff  and  formal  productions,  however,  produced  their 
effect:  they  led  the  way  to  coherence  of  ideas,  and  symmetry  of 
construction;  which  excellences,  engrafted  upon  the  composi- 
tions of  the  moderns,  as  may  be  observed  in  Mozart,  Haydn, 
and  Beethoven,  has  resulted  the  perfection  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing,— that  kind  of  expressive,  yet  regular  music,  which  is  the  joint 
product  of  the  head  and  heart.  To  enjoy  the  masterly  works  of 
these  authors,  should  be  the  ambition  of  every  student.  When 
we  mention  the  necessity  of  a  good  ear  for  this  purpose,  it  may, 
perhaps,  excite  a  smile,  that  a  quality  so  obvious,  should  be 
alluded  to  here; — a  little  reflection  will,  however,  convince 
even  those  who  have  made  some  proficiency  in  the  practical 
part  of  the  art,  that  the  observation  is  not  beneath  attention. 
A  child,  who  catches  up  all  the  tunes  it  hears,  shows  that  strong 
musical  predisposition  which,  later  in  life,  secures  the  ear  from 
being  injured  by  the  many  wrong  notes,  or  passages  too  flatly 
or  sharply  sung,  or  played  upon  a  neglected  piano-forte, 
which  vitiate  more  imperfect  organs.  The  habit  of  allowing  an 
ordinary  ear  to  accommodate  itself  to  anything  out  of  tune,  is 
highly  mischievous;  for  though  it  may  not  destroy  the  whole 
pleasure  to  be  derived  from  music,  it  blunts  the  fine  edge  of  enjoy- 
ment ;  and  it  is  astonishing  how  many  public  performers  are  de- 
fective in  this  particular.  While,  therefore,  the  first  species  of 
ear  may  be  left  to  itself,  the  second  should  receive  care  and  edu- 
cation; for  the  neglect  of  comparing  sounds,  and  of  examining 
the  nicety  of  intervals,  in  youth,  produces,  at  last,  that  thorough 
obtuseness  to  music,  which  is  often  discoverable  in  persons  of  a 


MUSIC.  367 

middle  age.  Those  who  are  conscious  of  any  defective  intonation 
in  singing,  should  immediately  take  pains  to  rectify  it,  and  not 
come  to  the  hasty  and  despairing  conclusion,  that  nature  has 
withheld  from  them  certain  faculties.  Untuned  piano-fortes,  and  a 
random  way  of  using  the  voice,  without  proving  the  truth  of  the 
intervals,  lead,  at  last,  to  a  total  depravity  of  die  ear.  Madame 
Malibran  and  Mademoiselle  Sontag  have  a  perfection,  with  respect 
to  exactitude  of  pitch,  in  their  singing,  which  has  been  scarcely 
before  heard  in  England ;  and  such  is  the  impression  created  by 
their  performance,  that  the  propriety  of  training  the  ear,  as  well 
as  the  voice,  is  no  longer  doubted.  The  piano-forte  is  the  grammar 
of  music.  As  all  those  who  would  be  good  players  should  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  best  styles  of  singing,  so  it  is  of  the  highest 
advantage  to  a  vocal  performer  to  be  well  initiated  upon  a  keyed 
instrument ;  this  gives  a  knowledge  of  modulation,  and  relish  for 
harmony;  in  a  word,  it  insures  the  confidence  of  science,  without 
diminishing  the  natural  feeling.  It  would  be  no  difficult  task  to  show 
that  those  singers,  who  trust  to  unassisted  nature,  are  apt  to  fall 
into  vulgarity:  a  mere  ballad,  may  certainly  be  thus  achieved;  but 
in  higher  attempts,  the  mind  and  cultivated  taste  of  the  performer 
must  appear.  Indeed,  whatever  may  be  said  of  genius  and  natural 
aptitude  for  music,  it  may  be  asserted,  that  nothing  admirable  was 
ever  accomplished,  by  composer  or  performer,  without  great  pa- 
tience and  the  most  persevering  application.  Buffon  has  truly 
remarked  of  this  talent  for  study,  that  it  is  in  itself  genius ;  and 
careful  study, — that  is,  not  the  mere  routine  of  mechanical  exercises 
for  the  fingers  or  voice, — a  drudgery  which  often  does  more  harm 
than  good, — but  a  steady  practice,  in  which  the  head  directs  the 
labours  of  both,  is  more  frequently  wanting  among  us  than  mu- 
sical feeling. 

The  first  requisite  for  a  pupil  is  a  good  master,  who  should  be 
selected  as  a  man  of  temper,  experience,  and  rather  of  tact  in 
explaining  and  illustrating,  than  a  fine  performer.  Much  depends 
upon  attention  to  minute  points  in  the  outset  of  the  study  of  piano- 
forte playing ;  for  injudicious  instructions,  at  this  time,  produce 
the  worst  consequences.  Let  none  but  a  master  superintend  the 
position  of  the  pupil's  hand  upon  the  instrument,  or  direct  the 
motion  of  her  fingers.  A  governess  may  be  allowed  to  attend  upon 
the  practice,  and  see  die  master's  injunctions  obeyed;  but  it  is  in 
die  highest  degree  injudicious  to  allow  her,  as  is  generally  done, 
to  give  the  first  lessons;  for  the  foundation  of  a  bad  and  indistinct 
execution  is  frequently  laid  by  diose  who  are  diligent  enough  in 
31* 


368  MUSIC. 

practising,  merely  because  as  much  care  is  not  taken  in  raising 
the  fingers  from  the  keys,  as  in  striking  them.  Nothing  is  more 
common  than  to  see  four  or  five  keys,  in  the  playing  of  a  scale, 
held  down  at  the  same  time  by  young  ladies,  who  read  music  with 
great  facility.  This  violation  of  harmony,  intolerable  to  well- 
regulated  ears,  results  from  want  of  attention  to  the  preliminary 
exercises.  Difficulties  in  the  practical  part  of  music  have,  of  late, 
increased  in  such  undue  proportion  to  effects,  that  none  but  those 
who  have  received  very  early  instruction  may  emulate  the  bril- 
liancy and  articulation  of  the  fashionable  performers,  Kalkbrenner, 
Pixis,  and  Moscheles.  However,  the  music-mad  passages  of  some 
modern  piano-forte  composers  are  not  worth  the  trouble  of  con- 
quering; and  though  early  youth  is  to  be  recommended  as  the 
season  for  undergoing  the  process  of  strengthening  the  hand,  and 
rendering  the  fingers  independent,  it  should  be  with  a  view  to  the 
beautiful  and  intelligible  compositions  of  Dussek,  Cramer,  and 
Hummel,  or  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven;  and  not  for  the  sake  of 
the  ordinary  parade  pieces,  of  which  the  music-shops  are  so  prolific. 
Those  who  have  not  had  the  advantage  of  commencing  with  a 
good  master,  at  nine  or  ten  years  of  age,  should  endeavour  to  give 
a  more  exquisite  polish  to  all  they  can  accomplish,  which  may  be 
generally  more  pleasing  to  hearers  than  the  most  rapid  execution 
unaccompanied  by  taste.  Those  who  are  deficient  in  confidence, 
will  always  find  a  resource  in  duetts;  which,  while  they  offer 
greater  ease  in  the  execution,  produce  a  fulness  and  richness  of 
effect,  to  which  one  performer  is  quite  inadequate. 

As  the  taste  gradually  forms,  in  proportion  as  the  pupil  becomes 
acquainted  with  a  succession  of  good  authors,  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  that,  in  the  choice  of  pieces,  the  real  piano-forte  style 
should  be  preserved;  and  that  flimsy  extracts  from  operas,  ballets, 
&c.  should  be  avoided.  Diligent  attention  at  concerts,  and  obser- 
vation of  the  manner  of  fine  performers,  are  efficient  means  of 
improvement.  Mr.  J.  B.  Cramer,  the  immediate  successor  to  the 
excellences  of  his  friend  Dussek,  is  the  great  master  of  the  expres- 
sive and  singing  style  of  the  piano-forte,  and  the  most  admirable 
model  that  can  be  placed  before  the  student.  His  manner  of 
drawing  the  tone  from  the  instrument,  so  different  from  the  jarring 
noise  and  thumping  of  the  keys  affected  by  the  new  school  of 
concerto  players,  cannot  be  too  highly  praised,  or  strenuously 
imitated.  In  all  that  he  has  composed,  there  is  to  be  found  deep 
knowledge  of  harmony,  joined  to  exquisite  melody  of  the  most 
fresh  and  natural  vein:  but  the  great  excellence  of  his  productions 


MUSIC.  369 

is,  that  they  are  calculated  to  display  all  the  effects  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  instrument.  Moscheles  is  a  sound  and  fanciful  com- 
poser, but  of  the  new  style,  in  which  expression  is  too  much  over- 
looked, as  is  also  the  genius  of  the  piano-forte.  Novelty  and 
ingenuity  are  the  characteristics  of  this  author's  productions; 
which,  indeed,  we  are  compelled  to  admire,  though  we  find  little  in 
them  to  charm.  The  piano-forte  works  of  Hummel  unite  the  ex- 
cellences of  Cramer  and  Moscheles :  that  is,  they  present  all  the 
smoothness  and  harmonious  blendings  of  intervals  of  the  one,  with 
the  bold  extensions  and  abrupt  arpeggio  passages  of  the  other. 
Yet,  in  style,  Hummel  is  peculiar;  fancy  and  feeling  are,  with  him, 
united  in  an  extraordinary  degree ;  there  is  a  free  extemporaneous 
air  about  his  productions,  which  puts  the  hearer  in  mind  of  the 
careless  moods  of  Mozart  or  Beethoven. 

Supposing  the  pupil  to  have  attained  a  pretty  good  execution, 
it  may  be  proposed  that  the  studies  shall  be  finished  by  this  pro- 
gression of  authors: — Mozart,  CJementi,  Dussek,  Beethoven,  and 
Cramer's  more  difficult  compositions,  with  dementi's  preludes  and 
exercises,  Gradus  ad  Parnassum,  and  Cramer's  studies,  and  the 
difficult  productions  of  distinguished  composers,  ancient  and  modern. 
If  any  would  still  proceed  and  form  a  taste  for  the  loftiest  depart- 
ments of  the  art,  the  works  of  Handel  and  Sebastian  Bach  form 
the  proper  termination.  It  should  be  strongly  impressed  upon 
die  mind  of  the  student,  that  what  is  attempted  should  be  well 
executed;  and  that  it  is  better  to  stop  short  half-way  with  a  neat 
and  rounded  execution,  than  to  risk  great  difficulties  with  a  lame 
or  heavy  finger.  As  the  time  of  many  young  ladies  is  claimed  by 
other  accomplishments  as  well  as  music,  it  may  be  proper  to  remind 
them,  that  the  greatest  labour  does  not  always  secure  a  pleasing 
performer.  As  an  instance  of  the  effect  of  strong  natural  taste,  we 
will  only  mention,  that  we  have  heard  some  of  the  andante  move- 
ments of  Haydn's  sinfonias  played  by  a  gentleman  whose  abilities 
in  fingering  would  never  help  him  through  a  scale,  yet  so  just  was 
the  expression  of  this  amateur,  so  finished  his  embellishment,  and 
so  delicate  his  touch,  that,  in  the  result,  it  appeared  to  the  hearer  as 
though  a  professor  were  at  the  instrument.  Part  of  the  false  taste 
which  has  been  introduced  by  popular  singers  and  performers  into 
the  music  of  the  present  day,  is  a  capricious  dragging  of  the  time 
(tempo  rubato)  from  a  notion,  which  is  the  very  reverse  of  truth, 
that  an  adherence  to  time  destroys  expression.  Mozart  has 
well  combated  this  error:  he  distinctly  states  in  his  letters, 
that  time  is  the  most  difficult  and  necessary  part  of  music,  and 


370  MUSIC. 

he  prides  himself  upon  always  being  accurate  in  it.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  mechanical  process  of  counting  and  beating 
should  be  remarkable  in  performance;  a  good  master  will  en- 
courage the  habit  from  the  first,  and  the  student  will  find,  that  to 
mark  the  proportions  of  rhythm  soon  becomes  an  involuntary 
action  of  the  mind. 

The  incautious  use  of  the  pedals  should  be  guarded  against,  not 
only  because  the  sounds  being  sustained,  irrelevant  harmonies  are 
often  heard  in  confusion,  to  the  annoyance  and  injury  of  the  ear, 
but  because  this  scheme  for  covering  poor  execution  by  noise,  is 
now  generally  understood;  or  if  such  be  not  the  interpretation,  the 
frequent  employment  of  the  pedals  is,  at  least,  set  down  to  bad 
taste.  Mozart  and  Clemen ti,  who  sustained  the  character  of  the 
most  finished  and  expressive  performers  possible,  needed  no  aid  of 
pedals  to  heighten  the  effect  of  their  compositions  and  execution. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  fingers  are  trained,  the  eye  accus- 
tomed to  prompt  service,  and  the  ready  answer  of  the  hand  ensured 
by  the  practice  of  new  music  at  frequent  intervals,  it  is  expedient 
that  the  pupil  should  be  acquainted  with  figured  basses,  and  the 
inversions  and  roots  of  chords.  This  study,  which  is  called  thorough 
bass,  has,  we  know,  a  frightfully  harsh  sound  in  ladies'  ears ;  but  it 
is  really  so  simple  and  trifling,  compared  with  the  drudgery  of 
musical  practice,  that  we  can  only  compare  the  acquirement  of  this 
knowledge  to  learning  a  common  rule  in  arithmetic.  A  little 
book,  entitled  The  Thorough  Bass  Primer,  by  Burrowes,  explains  so 
concisely  the  elements  of  the  musical  short-hand,  that  no  one  who 
takes  the  trouble  to  read  that  work,  will  complain  of  having  been 
decoyed  into  unnecessary  trouble.  Thorough  bass,  it  is  true, 
leads  a  little  way  into  the  science  of  composition,  but  not  into  any 
of  those  abstruse  parts,  the  comprehension  of  which  depending 
upon  innate  propensities,  would  of  course  make  any  attempt  to  ex- 
plain them  to  the  general  learner  absurd. 

Under  the  direction  of  a  competent  master,  the  steady  and 
careful  pupil,  possessing  ordinary  intelligence  and  faculties,  will 
certainly  reach  correctness  of  performance.  This  point  gained, 
the  next  endeavour  should  be  to  understand  the  intention  of  a 
composer; — to  feel  out  the  just  degree  of  force  to  be  given  to  any 
emphatic  note  or  group  of  notes ; — to  diminish  and  increase  the 
sound  in  proper  places; — to  discover  melodies  in  the  bass  and  inner 
parts  as  well  as  in  the  treble ; — and,  lastly,  to  see,  in  the  mind's  eye, 
all  the  symmetry  of  structure  in  a  composition.  This  taste  is  to 
be  acquired;  but  its  acquirement  will  be  slow  in  those  cases  where 


MUSIC.  371 

the  pupil  plays  continually  alone ;  while  it  may  be  greatly  facilitated 
by  playing,  in  small  parties,  such  music  as  the  airs  of  Mozart,  ar- 
ranged for  the  piano-forte,  harp,  flute,  and  violoncello ;  Beethoven 
and  Mozart's  symphonies;  Mozart's  concertos,  and  Romberg's 
symphonies,  of  which,  excellent  arrangements  by  Novello,  Watts, 
J.  B.  Cramer,  and  Hummel,  are  to  be  obtained.  It  is  the  richness 
of  harmony,  and  the  constant  flow  of  many  parts,  which  refine 
the  ear  and  quicken  general  apprehension.  For  this  purpose, 
also,  regular  compositions,  like  the  sonatas  and  symphonies  of 
Haydn  and  Mozart,  which  are  not  only  pictures  in  point  of 
design,  but  contain  the  purest  harmony,  are  greatly  preferable  to 
popular  fantasias,  which,  from  their  irregularity,  are  trifles  in  the 
estimation  of  composers,  and,  by  their  licentious  combinations, 
essentially  injure  the  ear.  It  is  wise  to  lay  as  good  a  foundation 
for  raising  the  taste,  as  for  the  mechanism  of  execution:  when  the 
judgment  has  become  settled,  and  the  natural  resolutions  of  harmo- 
nies fixed  in  the  mind,  we  may  listen  to  the  wildest  passages  of 
Rossini  or  Meyerbeer,  and  even  be  amused  with  their  novelty,  but 
our  principles  will  not  be  disturbed.  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  from 
that  kind  of  music,  termed  harmonized  airs  and  glees,  with  sym- 
phonies and  accompaniments,  put  forth  by  the  shops  for  the  sake 
of  those  amateurs  who,  having  learned  but  little,  occasionally  in- 
dulge in  joining  a  second  or  a  bass  with  the  ladies  at  an  evening 
party.  National  melodies,  provided  their  character  be  faithfully 
preserved,  are  useful  and  agreeable;  but  the  generality  of  vocal 
pieces,  such  as  Troubadour  Airs,  Lays  of  Minstrels,  and  the  like, 
usually  served  up  on  such  occasions,  should  be  rather  conde- 
scended to  than  encouraged ;  for  though  we  are  bound  to  humour 
the  fancies  of  our  friends,  we  must  be  cautious  that  a  little  smooth 
harmony,  or  trite  melody,  do  not  impose  itself  upon  us  as  the  con- 
summation of  art,  and  that  our  own  taste,  instead  of  making  ad- 
vances, do  not  sicken  and  retrograde.  From  thoroughly  bad 
music  there  is  nothing  to  fear;  we  question  whether  it  may  not 
sharpen  the  relish  for  good  authors ;  but  mawkish  middling  com- 
positions, when  frequently  listened  to,  are  decidedly  insidious  and 
hurtful. 


372  MUSIC. 


,         VOCAL  MUSIC. 

It  is  a  mistake  too  general  among  amateurs,  that,  as  singing 
is  in  a  manner  giving  vent  to  the  feelings,  unaccompanied  by  any 
visible  mechanical  operation,  they  should  make  the  ear  their  sole 
guide;  with  such,  science  is  superfluous  and  practice  unnecessary. 
That  those  are  best  calculated  to  succeed  as  singers,  who  have  great 
liveliness  of  ear,  accompanied  by  a  musical  memory,  there  can  be 
no  doubt;  but  it  often  occurs,  that  such  natural  advantages  are 
obstacles  to  perfection. 

A  good  course  of  practice  on  the  piano  or  harp,  should  be 
accomplished  before  the  solfa  is  commenced:  this  is  the  plan 
usually  adopted  on  the  continent,  and,  with  what  result,  the 
admirable  singing  listened  to,  during  the  opera  season  of  1828-9, 
plainly  evinced.  The  science  of  singers  will  cease  to  become 
a  by-word  for  laughter,  when  the  same  system  becomes  general 
in  England.  How  much  has  that  word  science,  with  regard  to 
singing,  been  abused!  We  have  heard  it  attributed  to  the  vilest 
flourishes  upon  wrong  harmonies,  and  to  many  other  absurdities 
upon  which  the  theatrical  public  no  longer  waste  their  applause. 
The  vulgar  graces  and  embellishments  so  called,  copied  from  the 
theatre,  and  heard  at  second-hand  in  every  drawing-room  a  few 
years  back,  made  sound  judges  despair  of  the  success  of  music  in 
England:  but  private  performers  have  subsequently  been  taught 
to  look  elsewhere  for  models,  and  the  style  of  the  theatre  is  now 
left  to  the  admiration  of  mechanics,  and  the  imitation  of  street  mu- 
sicians. Even  of  professional  singers,  the  education  has,  in  Eng- 
land, been  hitherto  extremely  superficial,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  pupils  of  such  masters  should  be  scarcely  better  informed. 
A  fine  voice  being  held  here,  according  to  the  Italian  proverb, 
ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred  requisites  for  a  singer,  all  that  the 
master  did  to  fit  his  pupil  for  the  public,  was  to  strengthen  it,  to 
teach  a  shake,  a  few  cadences,  and  to  get  a  half-a-dozen  parts  in 
operas,  acquired  by  the  labour  of  infinite  repetition.  The  pupil 
then,  knowing  no  more  of  harmony  than  the  chords  which  ac- 
company the  scale,  and  those  upon  no  certain  principles,  became 
instructer  in  his  turn,  and  daily  thought  himself  fulfilling  his  duty 
to  parents,  by  teaching  their  children  the  turns  and  graces  to  a  few 
fashionable  songs.  Indeed,  ignorance  of  music  is  still  so  remarka- 
ble among  singing-masters,  more  especially  Italian  professors,  most 


MUSIC.  373 

of  whom  are  patronized  for  some  eccentricity  of  person,  manners, 
or  habits,  that  it  is  vain  to  expect  from  them  a  fundamental  and 
systematic  course  of  instruction.  Among  the  exceptions  to  what 
we  have  just  advanced,  are  two  splendid  ones: — the  composer 
Coccia,  who  has  just  left  England  for  sometime;  and  Liverati,  who 
has  made  excellent  pupils ;  both  these  are  well-grounded  musicians, 
and,  therefore,  bestow  not  too  much  care  on  externals. 

We  would  not  have  any  of  our  readers  repress  an  inclination  to 
the  study  of  singing  from  diffidence  on  the  score  of  the  voice:  daily 
practice  will  almost  create  a  tone  where  none  existed ;  and,  after 
all,  if  the  defect  of  quality  can  be  compensated  by  an  exuberance 
of  feeling  and  good  taste,  it  will  delight  infinitely  more  than  those 
powerful  voices  which,  in  unskilful  performers,  are  perfectly  over- 
whelming and  disagreeable;  when,  indeed,  the  loudness  of  the  voice 
makes  any  variation  from  the  pitch,  or  misplaced  emphasis,  more 
distressing  to  the  hearer. 

A  radical  defect  of  ear  is,  then,  the  only  real  objection  to  the 
cultivation  of  singing,  since  voice  may  be  acquired  by  artificial 
means ;  and  as  it  is  impossible  that  a  true  love  of  music  can  exist 
without  a  fondness  for  vocal  melody,  we  hope  to  be  rendering 
a  service  to  our  fair  readers  by  showing  them  how  easily, 
without  extraordinary  natural  gifts,  they  may  please  themselves 
and  others.  Want  of  judgment  or  self-appreciation  is  the  cause 
\vliy  private  performances  often  displease ;  and  those  who  follow 
the  prevailing  fashion  in  music,  without  considering  their  natural 
inclination,  or  how  far  their  voice  or  their  accustomed  practice  may 
have  fitted  them  for  peculiar  imitation,  generally  excite  disadvan- 
tageous comparison.  This  is  never  the  case  with  any  who  sing 
what  they  feel  strongly  impelled  to.  In  the  first  place,  we  would 
have  the  natural  compass  strictly  adhered  to,  and  thus  all  those 
forced,  harsh  tones,  which  generally  lead  to  the  utter  ruin  of 
the  voice,  will  be  avoided ;  no  mezzo-soprano  should  be  allowed 
to  scream  up  to  C,  or  high  treble  descend  to  A;  we  would  have 
no  sweet-voiced  placid  girl  attempt  a  scena  that  demanded  the 
impassioned  declamation  of  a  Pasta  in  Medea; — nor  any,  excellent 
in  a  ballad,  attempt  Rode's  variations,  to  remind  us  of  the  perfect 
articulation  of  Mademoiselle  Sontag.  Few  have  the  discrimina- 
tion to  select  that  species  of  music  which  is  perfectly  accordant 
with  their  disposition,  as  well  as  within  their  powers;  and  it  is 
notorious  in  public  singers,  that  many  have  gone  through  part  after 
part  without  any  decided  success,  who  have  at  length  gained  it  by 
a  casual  experiment. 


374  MUSIC. 

Remembering,  as  was  just  observed,  the  natural  limits  of  the 
voice,  the  diligent  student  should  unremittingly  follow  up  the 
practice  of  the  solfa,  beginning  piano,  swelling  out  the  voice  and 
diminishing  it  again,  in  as  long  notes  as  a  judicious  economy  of  the 
breath  will  allow ;  making  the  exactness  of  the  pitch  and  intonation 
the  subject  of  the  most  vigilant  attention.  The  tendency  of  the  voice 
is  to  sink,  and  the  performer  is  less  likely  to  be  aware  of  such  acci- 
dents than  the  audience.  When  it  is  remembered  how  exquisitely 
delicate  is  the  structure  of  the  organ,  and  that  its  intonation  is  liable 
to  be  injured  by  the  slightest  agitation  of  the  spirits,  or  nervous 
dread,  to  which  the  best  singers  are  subject  in  performing  before 
certain  companies,  little  need  be  said  on  the  necessity  for  care  in  the 
outset.  Previous  practice  on  the  piano-forte  will  greatly  quicken 
the  improvement,  and  render  the  acquirements  solid;  and  an 
instrument  always  kept  in  the  perfection  of  tune,  must  be  the 
standard  of  truth,  and  the  umpire  between  the  ear  and  the  voice. 
So  much,  with  respect  to  compass  and  tone,  depends  upon  the 
general  health,  that  the  scale  will  be  often  lengthened  or  curtailed 
several  notes,  in  proportion  as  it  is  good  or  bad ;  but  as  it  is  in- 
jurious at  any  time  to  fatigue  the  voice  by  over-application,  it  is 
especially  so  to  exert  it,  at  particular  times,  to  reach  extreme  notes 
with  difficulty. 

After  daily  practice  of  the  scale,  and  the  attainment  of  readiness 
in  hitting  distances  or  intervals,  it  will  be  highly  advantageous  to 
the  young  performer  to  take  the  lower  part  in  duetts,  or  the  middle 
voice  in  trios :  this  prevents  too  great  a  reliance  being  placed  upon 
the  upper  melody,  facilitates  the  reading  of  music,  gives  confidence, 
and  forms  a  good  preparation  for  singing  to  the  accompaniments 
of  modern  music.  The  voice  should,  as  quickly  as  possible,  divest 
itself  of  the  assistance  of  those  go-cart  and  leading-string  accom- 
paniments, by  which  popular  song-writers  enervate  the  taste,  and 
destroy  the  capacity  for  improvement ;  for  if  the  pupil  be  well  ac- 
customed to  read  and  to  keep  time,  it  matters  little  what  goes 
forward  on  the  instrument  or  in  the  orchestra :  and  here,  instead  of 
a  barren  accompaniment,  with  the  melody  on  the  top  of  it,  in  unison 
with  the  voice  and  helping  it  all  the  way,  we  may  have  our  en- 
joyment doubled,  in  listening  to  the  fancy  and  ingenuity  of  the 
composer,  as  they  are  employed  in  setting  off  his  prominent  subject. 
There  is  a  strict  analogy  between  the  light  and  shadow  and  the 
other  resources  by  which  an  historical  painter  draws  attention  to 
his  principal  figure,  and  the  use  of  varied  accompaniments  to  a 
grand  air:  they  are,  doubtless,  to  be  used  with  discretion;  but  we 


MUSIC.  375 

cannot  listen  to  the  beautiful  phrases  in  Mozart's  accompaniments, 
or  to  those  in  Beethoven's  Cantatas,  of  which  the  one  "Ah!  Per- 
fido,"  will  instantly  occur  to  the  mind  of  the  concert-frequenting 
amateur,  and  persuade  ourselves  that  they  injure  vocal  melody. 
Ignorance  and  vanity  were  the  causes  why  many  public  singers, 
at  first,  set  their  faces  against  free  accompaniments; — because  they 
were  compelled  to  sing  in  strict  time ;  to  learn  the  music  of  their 
parts  thoroughly,  which  their  want  of  habit  in  reading  rendered 
difficult;  to  leave  out  cadences  and  flourishes;  and  to  share  the 
public  attention  with  the  performers  in  the  orchestra. 

All  that  we  urge  tends  to  this, — that  neglect  of  laying  a  founda- 
tion of  musical  knowledge,  and  too  great  dependence  on  the  feeling 
or  ear,  hinder  many  from  becoming  fine  performers;  and  these 
errors,  therefore,  cannot  be  too  zealously  combated.  In  Mrs.  Bil- 
lington,  there  was  an  example  of  the  wonderful  effects  produced  by 
industry  and  cultivation,  upon  natural  genius.  This  lady  was  as 
fine  a  piano-forte  performer  as  a  singer,  but  she  had  the  good  sense 
to  keep  the  knowledge  of  her  skill  in  the  back-ground ;  because 
she  knew  that  the  public  would  not  believe  such  a  phenomenon 
of  perfection,  in  all  the  styles  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  could 
possibly  exist ;  and  that,  as  she  showed  excellence  as  a  player,  the 
public  would  detract  from  her  merits  as  a  singer.  One  instance  of 
the  talent  of  this  extraordinary  woman  is  worth  recording.  Mrs. 
Billington  proposed  to  bring  forward,  for  her  benefit,  Mozart's 
Opera,  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,  which  had  never  been  heard  in  this 
country,  and  of  which  there  was  only  one  manuscript  score  in  the 
kingdom.  This  copy  was  in  the  possession  of  his  present  Majesty,  then 
Prince  of  Wales,  who  kindly  sent  it  to  the  Opera-House  for  her 
use.  The  whole  band,  the  singers,  and  chorus,  were  anxious  to 
hear  the  contents  of  so  precious  a  novelty  as  a  manuscript  opera  of 
Mozart;  and  Mrs.  Billington  gratified  them  by  sitting  down  to  the 
piano-forte,  playing  the  accompaniments  from  the  score,  and  singing 
the  principal  part — that  of  Vitellia.  In  this  way  she  went  through  the 
whole  of  the  opera,  from  beginning  to  end — giving  Mozart's  expres- 
sion and  character  so  admirably,  at  sight,  that  the  audience  were  in 
a  state  of  enthusiasm  no  less  with  what  they  heard,  than  with  admir- 
ation of  her  wonderful  powers,  and  fine  musical  mind.  If  industry, 
and  knowledge  of  the  mechanical  part  of  music,  were  the  means  of 
perfecting  a  Billington,  we  may  conclude,  that  they  are  equally  cal- 
culated to  make  the  most  of  the  poorest  voice.  Students  should  not 
become  impatient  of  practice,  because  the  tone  does  not  flow  freely, 
or  appear  of  a  good  quality,  during  their  first  attempts: — such  is  the 
32 


376  MUSIC. 

case  with  every  unused  instrument, — every  violin  not  played  upon, 
or  flute  not  breathed  through;  but  perseverance  in  the  rules  of 
art  will  soften  imperfections  and  correct  defects. 

The  influence  of  the  temper  upon  tone  deserves  much  consi- 
deration. Habits  of  querulousness,  or  ill-nature,  will  communicate 
a  cat-like  quality  to  the  singing,  as  infallibly  as  they  give  a  peculiar 
character  to  the  speaking  voice.  That  there  really  exist  amiable 
tones  is  not  a  fanciful  chimera.  In  the  voice  there  is  no  deception ; 
it  is,  to  many,  the  index  of  the  mind,  as  well  as  of  moral  qualities ; 
and  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  low,  soft  tones  of  gentle  and 
amiable  beings,  whatever  their  musical  endowments  may  be, 
seldom  fail  to  please;  besides  which,  the  singing  of  ladies  indi- 
cates the  cultivation  of  their  taste  generally,  and  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  mind.  Shakspeare  felt  that  there  is  a  reciprocal 
charm  reflected  from  music  on  the  singer,  and  from  the  singer 
on  music,  when  he  wrote  that  beautiful  comparison  of  the  sound 
of  a  loved  voice  to 

Ditties  highly  penned, 

Sung  by  a  fair  queen  in  a  summer's  bower, 
With  ravishing  division  to  her  lute. 

For  an  instant,  compare  the  vulgarity  of  a  ballad-singer,  her 
repulsive  tone  of  voice  and  hideous  graces,  to  the  manner  of  an 
equally  uncultivated  singer  in  good  society;  or  watch  the  treat- 
ment of  a  pretty  melody  from  a  concert-room  at  the  west-end  of 
London,  until  it  reaches  the  ears  from  under  the  parlour-window, 
and  observe  how  it  gains  something  newr  of  vulgarity  with  every 
fresh  degradation:  the  discrepancy  between  the  copy  and  the 
original  air  becomes,  at  length,  ludicrous.  The  pretty  air,  "  O,  no, 
we  never  mention  her!"  will  serve  to  illustrate  our  observation. 

Where  several  young  ladies,  sisters  or  friends,  reside  in  one 
family,  there  is  an  opportunity  for  bringing  the  social  harmony  of 
voices  to  a  kind  of  perfection,  which  casual  intercourse  can  never 
lead  to.  In  a  country  life,  the  accomplishment  of  music  is  espe- 
cially graceful.  What  can  better  befit  morning  or  evening  society 
in  an  arbour,  or  in  the  shady  recesses  of  a  park  or  pleasure- 
ground,  than  an  Italian  arietta  of  Millico  or  Paesiello,  aided  by  a 
few  touches  of  the  extempore  guitar1?  A  social  glee,  sung  by 
heart,  may  not  render  the  labours  of  the  embroidery  less  interest- 
ing, or  ill  occupy  the  interval  of  reading  aloud.  One  of  the  chief 
delights  of  ladies'  work  is,  that  it  so  little  engrosses  the  thoughts: 
while  their  fingers  are  mechanically  employed,  they  may,  in  a 


MUSIC.  377 

hundred  ways,  entertain  themselves,  and  those  about  them,  as 
well  with  the  music  of  their  voices  as  with  the  merry  conceits  of 
their  wit  and  fancy. 

To  resume  our  practical  hints; — as  it  is  necessary  that  solo 
singing  should  have  a  considerable  degree  of  polish  in  the  execu- 
tion, we  would  recommend  the  young  pupil  to  the  choice  of  slow 
and  expressive  airs  of  the  old  Italian  school,  as  the  best  to  initiate 
die  voice.  Some  of  the  airs  in  Artaxerxes,  composed  by  Arne, 
in  imitation  of  the  Italian  style,  are  excellent  for  this  purpose ;  as 
are  also  the  charming  canzonets  by  Millico.  A  close  and  brilliant 
shake  is  so  necessary  an  ornament  to  many  styles  of  vocal  music, 
that  the  daily  practice  of  it  (taking  care  that  it  be  very  slow  at 
first,  and  quickened  by  degrees)  is  indispensable.  Avoid  any 
attempts  at  brilliant  passages,  or  show  songs,  until  your  solfeggi 
have  put  it  in  your  power  to  accomplish  them  with  ease  and  dis- 
tinctness. To  swell  the  number  of  those  who  have  worn  out  the 
patience  of  whole  parties  of  innocent,  unoffending  people,  by  the 
everlasting  "  Di  Piacer,"  is  not  a  commendable  ambition.  The 
public,  from  the  time  of  Farinelli  downwards,  has  consented  to 
applaud  divisions;  and,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  study  of  them  is 
advisable,  as  they  give  fluency  and  power  in  dramatic  music ;  but 
arpeggio  passages,  like  the  celebrated  variation  to  Rode's  air,  so 
inimitably  executed  by  Mademoiselle  Sontag,  serve,  in  themselves, 
no  purpose  as  music.  Above  all,  they  should  not  be  attempted  in 
an  early  stage  of  progress,  nor  until  the  ear  has  attained  the  nicest 
accuracy. 

Expression  is  the  principal  and  characteristic  charm  of  the 
voice,  but  propriety  of  expression  demands  fitness  to  a  particular 
style ;  for  instance,  nothing  can  be  more  disagreeable  than  to  hear 
Italian  Opera  music  sung  with  the  frigidity  of  the  English  style, 
except  it  be  to  hear  a  native  ballad  overlaid  with  foreign  orna- 
ments and  frippery.  A  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  Italian 
language,  and  diligent  observation  of  the  best  performers  at  the 
Opera,  are  to  be  recommended  to  those  whose  taste  leads  them  in 
that  direction;  for  it  is  in  vain  to  think  of  giving,  even  in  private, 
the  spirit  of  Opera  music,  from  the  mere  notes,  sung  with  an 
inflexible  face.  Like  the  renowned  Miserere  of  Allegri,  which, 
performed  out  of  the  Sistine  chapel  at  Rome,  without  the  usual 
.-olemnities,  appeared  but  a  common-place,  second-rate  affair, — 
Opera  music,  without  the  requisite  warmth  of  manner,  becomes 
incongruous,  if  not  an  elaborate  absurdity.  Conceive  the  sly,  im- 
pertinent address  of  the  knavish  Leporello  to  Elvira,  "  Madamina," 


378  MUSIC. 

given  with  all  the  gravity  of  visage  which  a  churchwarden  wear? 
at  a  parish-meeting,  and  the  portrait,  however  it  may  appear 
exaggerated  into  caricature,  is  not  without  an  original.  It  is, 
indeed,  seldom  that  in  England  we  find  any  strong  natural  apti- 
tude for  the  lighter  kinds  of  dramatic  music,  which  require  action : 
we  are  more  prone  to  indulge  in  witty  speeches  and  satire,  than 
in  arch  looks  and  bodily  gesticulation.  To  succeed  perfectly 
in  such  music  as  the  airs  of  the  Beggar's  Opera,  and  the  well- 
known  Scotch  and  Irish  melodies,  of  kindred  simplicity  and  pathos, 
demands,  generally,  a  voice  of  great  native  beauty,  and  a  refined 
and  tender  soul.  The  impetuosity,  which  well  befits  the  Italian 
style,  is  no  profitable  qualification  for  this  department  of  vocal 
music.  Handel's  oratorio  songs  require,  principally,  a  smooth, 
beautifully-toned  voice, — the  utmost  conception  of  the  devotional 
feeling  of  the  composer, — a  beautiful  crescendo  and  decrescendo, 
and  a  perfect  shake.  Perhaps  there  is  nothing  in  music  which 
approaches  so  nearly  to  our  imagination  of  the  angelical,  as  the 
tones  of  a  beautiful  female  voice  in  some  of  the  prayer-replete 
songs  of  Handel.  Let  us  recommend  Mrs.  W.  Knyvett  as  an 
example  of  perfection  in  this  style,  as  Miss  Stephens  is  in  that  of 
ballads  and  national  melodies. 

Whatever  be  the  flexibility  which  practice  bestows  upon  the 
voice,  it  is  requisite  that  the  time  for  displaying  it  should  be 
regulated  by  the  judgment;  for  one  of  the  most  frequent,  but  least 
tolerable  offences  in  singing,  is  to  break  the  continuity  and  injure 
the  sentiment  of  a  fine  air,  by  the  unmeaning  succession  of  notes, 
termed  roulade,  but  this  false  taste  is  already  on  the  decline. 
Rapid  and  distinct  articulation  is  never  misplaced  in  a  bravura ; 
and  the  judicious  performer  will  always  select  such  movements  as 
will  place  the  acquirements  in  a  favourable  light,  without  detract- 
ing from  the  reputation  of  the  taste.  The  famed  singer,  Signora 
Guari,  when  Mozart,  then  a  youth,  was  travelling  through  Parma, 
and  creating  the  liveliest  astonishment  by  his  compositions  and 
performance,  invited  him  to  her  house,  and  sang  to  him  some 
airs,  which,  though  not  of  that  kind  most  calculated  to  charm 
such  a  musician,  excited  his  admiration  to  so  great  a  degree,  that  he 
wrote  down  some  of  the  passages  she  executed,  lest  his  account 
should  be  deemed  incredible.  It  is  recorded  by  Mozart,  to  add 
to  our  surprise,  that  the  higher  the  notes  ascended,  the  softer 
the  singer  gave  them;  which  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  what 
is  usually  to  be  remarked  in  such  exhibitions.  The  following 
extract  from  one  passage  of  the  bravura,  sung  on  this  occasion 


MUSIC. 


379 


by  Signora  Guari,  is  an  example  of  the  florid  in  its  proper  place, 
and  a  lasting  monument  of  the  capacity  of  the  human  voice  in  its 
highest  stage  of  improvement  :  — 


We  have  but  a  few  words  more  to  say  on  the  mechanism  of 
the  voice,  before  we  recommend  the  pupil  to  her  diligence.  Let 
the  words  be  well  pronounced,  and  the  tone  flow  directly  from  the 
chest,  without  receiving  the  slightest  taint  or  peculiarity  of  quality 
from  the  head  or  throat  in  its  passage :  this  is  a  point  upon  which 
some  of  our  most  celebrated  English  singing-masters  have  shown 
great  negligence ;  it  will,  therefore,  be  prudent  to  choose  such  a 
teacher  as  has  already  made  good  pupils. 

In  order  to  found  the  taste  upon  the  principles  of  a  purely 
vocal  style,  we  must  turn  to  those  treasures  of  melody  which  are 
discoverable  in  the  Italian  and  German  operas  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  last  century, — in  Sarti,  Gluck,  Paesiello,  Cirnarosa,  and 
Mozart.  Rossini  is  the  author  now  earliest  put  upon  the  music- 
desk, — but  injudiciously;  for  though  he  has  composed,  here  and 
there,  exquisite  subjects,  his  novelties  of  air  are  made  up,  too 
frequently,  of  surprising,  quaint,  or  instrumental  phrases;  and  it 
is  only  in  compliance  with  the  over-anxious  desire  of  friends  to 
see  improvement  (as  they  imagine  it,)  that  pupils  are  hurried  into 
such  extravagances,  before  they  well  know  what  song  means. 
Music  of  this  kind  accustoms  the  hearer  not  to  look  closely  to  the 
union  of  sense  with  sound,  but  to  be  satisfied  with  any  words  to 
any  tune ;  and,  consequently,  to  lower  the  intellectual  standard  of 
the  art.  One  test  of  the  genuine  goodness  and  meaning  of  an 
air,  is  its  liability  to  be  injured  by  additions,  or  decorations,  at  the 
will  of  the  performer;  this  is  seldom  the  case  with  compositions 
in  the  modern  school  of  Italian  music:  with  Mercadante,  Pacini, 
and  others  of  that  stamp,  sing  how  you  will, — decorate  at  pleasure, 
— at  pleasure  add,  omit,  or  do  what  you  list,  and  the  music  will 
sound  none  the  worse;  for  we  cannot  spoil  what  is  already  bad, 
or  turn  into  nonsense  that  which  has  no  meaning.  These  com- 
posers are  like  bungling  novel-writers,  who  shroud  their  imperfect 
ideas  and  half-conceptions  under  the  obscurity  of  words,  and  palm 
32* 


380  MUSIC. 

their  own  stupidity  upon  the  reader.  It  would  be  folly  to  institute 
any  comparison  between  the  crude  notions  of  such  pretenders,  and 
the  school  of  Gluck  and  Mozart,  whose  crotchets  aud  quavers,  if 
there  were  a  language  refined  enough,  it  would  be  no  difficult 
matter  to  translate  into  words. 

But  let  us  return  to  our  rulers  of  the  passions,  and  to  the  young 
days  of  Melody,  when  she  appears  graceful,  free  and  natural,  re- 
minding us  of  the  wood-nymphs  and  goddesses  of  the  poets,  and 
not  of  the  meretricious,  bedizened  creature  she  has  become.  The 
province  of  vocal  melody  is  but  ill-fulfilled  when  the  sounds 
penetrate  no  farther  than  the  ear ;  but  sufficiently  so,  when  they 
convey  some  emotion,  from  one  human  being  to  another,  agreeably 
to  the  nature  of  the  expression  which  the  poetry  or  sentiment 
requires.  The  secret  of  the  musician's  labour  is  a  grand  one, — as 
unfathomable  in  its  source  as  any  mystery  of  nature;  we  feel 
assured  that  there  is  no  deception  in  it;  we  readily  acknowledge 
the  difference  between  airs  of  a  tender,  melancholy,  or  joyous 
character ;  but  upon  what  principle  they  become  so,  and  by  what 
process  their  affinity  to  certain  sentiments  is  discovered,  is  a 
puzzling  question, — indeed,  one  that  cannot  be  resolved.  It  is  a 
curious  consideration,  that  intervals,  at  a  certain  distance,  aided 
by  certain  accompaniments,  shall  give  an  air  of  dignity  to  the 
singer,  or  that  the  very  soul  of  tenderness  shall  dwell  in  certain 
appogiature :  but  difficult  as  it  is  to  comprehend  the  source  of  the 
composer's  inspiration,  this  intelligible  music  furnishes  the  easiest, 
as  well  as  the  most  honourable  and  profitable  employment  of  the 
student.  Still  more  interesting  is  it  to  trace  the  operations  of  the 
musician  in  characters  of  a  mixed  expression ;  as  in  the  poor  mad 
Nina  of  Paesiello ;  or  where  several  persons  of  different  characters 
are  brought  into  one  piece  to  contrast  with  and  relieve  each 
other,  as  in  the  celebrated  quartett  of  II  Don  Giovanni,  "  Non 
ti  fidar."  In  neither  of  these  compositions  are  the  proper  bounda- 
ries of  the  voice  overstepped:  though  nothing  can  be  more  dis- 
similar than  the  melodies,  yet  each  has  the  proper  vocal  character 
However,  there  are  some  excellences  of  singing  which  are  cer- 
tainly more  worthy  of  attainment  than  others,  and  at  the  head 
of  all  may  be  placed  die  tender  and  pathetic.  Certain  singers  are 
gifted  with  voices  of  a  quality  peculiarly  fitted  to  affect  in  these 
styles;  others  with  a  sweet  and  smiling  tone  (like  Caradori's,) 
which  seldom  makes  impression.  The  pupil  must,  as  we  said 
before,  be  greatly  guided  by  inclination ;  but  we  would  recommend, 
that  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  such  music  as  "  Che  faro,"  in 


MUSIC.  381 

Gluck's  Orfeo,  or  the  duett  "  Deh  prendi,"  in  Mozart's  Clemenza 
di  Tito,  should  decide  whether  the  musical  sentiment  is  really 
strong  in  the  hearer  or  not.  The  abundance  of  exquisite  melodies, 
which  are  to  be  found  in  the  hymns  to  the  Virgin,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Catholic  service,  are  calculated,  next  to  these,  to  lead 
to  great  purity  of  taste :  they  are  slow  and  graceful  in  the  move- 
ment, and  require  that  nicety  of  swelling  and  diminution  of  tone 
which  indicate  feeling.  But  to  avoid  the  extremity  of  vulgarity 
in  musical  taste,  the  student  must  eschew  the  greater  part  of 
English  songs; — we  mean  those  that  are  born  and  die  in  a  day: 
they  are  generally  replete  with  bad  accent,  bad  harmony,  and 
common  melody.  The  more  popular  the  song,  the  worse  it  is 
sure  to  be; — there  is  always  some  new  fashion  in  the  melody  of 
songs,  which  strikes  the  fancy  for  a  week  or  two,  and  is  then  thrown 
aside  and  forgotten  forever.  Except  the  airs  of  Mr.  Bishop, 
there  are  hardly  any,  of  native  produce,  calculated  to  have  a 
favourable  influence  upon  the  taste ;  and  as  there  exists,  at  present, 
no  really  English  style,  the  less  attention  given  to  this  class  of 
music  the  better. 


OF  MUSICAL  STYLE,  EMBELLISHMENT,  &c. 

The  use  of  graces  and  minor  embellishments  is  one  of  those 
results  of  a  well-directed  taste,  the  nice  application  of  whfrh  pro- 
duces style  in  performance.  In  all  the  compositions  of  the  solid 
masters,  Haydn,  Beethoven,  Mozart,  much  is  left  to  the  imagination 
and  feeling  of  the  performer ;  for  it  has  been  justly  supposed  that 
the  writing  of  every  individual  note,  and  the  marking  of  every 
transient  shake  or  beat,  would  lead  to  so  mechanical  a  style  of  exe- 
cution, that  melody  would  become  tame  and  poor;  and  being  des- 
titute of  all  warmth  in  the  manner  of  the  player,  would  never  reach 
the  heart  of  the  hearer.  It  partly  accounts  for  the  popularity  of 
Rossini,  that  he  was  the  first  who  wrote  embellishments  to  his 
melodies  at  length :  thus  putting  it  in  the  power  of  many,  who  had 
neither  imagination  nor  sensibility,  to  imitate  those  qualities  in 
others.  He,  consequently,  enlisted  a  host  of  inferior  artists  in  the 
ranks  of  his  admirers.  The  distances  in  a  melody  are  rendered  so 
much  more  smooth  and  elegant  by  the  turns,  appogiature,  and 
other  graces  resulting  from  a  refined  perception,  that  the  use  of 
them  is  indispensable.  The  player  must  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  character  of  the  music  she  performs,  or  it  is  impossible 
that  she  can  awaken  those  feelings  in  her  auditory  which  the  com- 


382  MUSIC. 

poser  intended  to  excite ;  and  the  same  rule  applies  equally  to  the 
singer.  Every  kind  of  movement,  whether  an  allegro,  an  adagio, 
or  a  simple  minuet,  has  its  peculiarities ;  and  the  same  embellish- 
ments cannot  be  used  in  common  between  them:  for  those  which 
may  be  beautifully  applied  in  one  place,  become,  in  another,  abso- 
lutely injurious.  The  principle  of  the  best  masters  of  composition, 
will  serve  here  as  an  excellent  guide  to  the  student:  they  never 
repeat  a  phrase  of  melody  harmonized  in  the  same  manner  as  they 
gave  it  at  first;  therefore,  when  ornament  is  most  necessary,  it  will 
be  generally  found  to  be  on  the  recurrence  of  a  musical  phrase. 
An  over-anxiety  to  give  the  highest  possible  finish  to  a  composition 
has  led  many  into  the  very  evil  of  tameness  and  want  of  effect  that 
they  wished  to  avoid: — coolness  and  confidence  are  necessary  here 
to  temper  the  warmth  of  our  fancy;  indeed,  the  conflicting  qua- 
lities of  an  ardent  feeling  and  sober  judgment,  are  so  seldom  found 
to  exist  in  any  but  those  of  great  experience,  practice,  and  command 
of  mechanical  power,  that  we  should  advise  a  very  slow  and  cau- 
tious progress  in  the  formation  of  style. 

We  will  suppose  the  harp  or  piano-forte  performer  to  have  at- 
tained all  that  skill  which  ensures  correct  performance ; — the  next 
degree  of  excellence  is  to  round  off  what  may,  by  too  great  abrupt- 
ness, seem  sharp  and  angular;  to  suit  the  style  accurately  to  the 
species  of  composition,  and  to  add  whatever  is  required  of  the  taste- 
ful or  ornamental.  This  is,  by  some,  termed  beautiful  performance, 
— as  distinguished  from  the  expressive, — but  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion is  harldy  perceptible.  Expression,  says  an  eminent  authority, 
relates  immediately  to  the  feelings,  and  denotes  in  the  player  a 
capacity  and  facility  of  displaying  by  his  performance,  and  urging 
to  the  heart  of  his  audience,  whatever  the  composer  has  addressed 
to  die  feelings  in  his  productions,  and  which  the  performer  must 
also  feel  after  him; — points  which  can  be  intimated  only  by  general 
terms,  having  but  little  precision  in  them,  and  which  usually  are  of 
service  to  those  only  who  have  these  things  already  within  them : 
if  such  be  the  case,  it  will  follow  that  expression  may,  indeed,  be 
awakened,  but,  properly  speaking,  that  it  can  neither  be  taught 
nor  acquired ;  it  dwells  within  the  soul  itself,  and  must  be  trans- 
fused directly  from  it  into  the  performance. 

Beauty  of  performance,  though  much  that  relates  to  it  may  be 
explained  by  general  rules,  is  too  closely  connected  with  the  ex- 
pressive to  be  taught  or  acquired  perfectly.  In  proportion  as  a 
master  is  exquisitely  alive  to  the  beauty  of  song,  it  becomes  difficult 
for  him  to  say  conscientiously  to  his  pupil,  "  make  this  or  tha\ 


MUSIC.  383 

singer  your  model:3'  if  such  could  be  done,  piano-forte  players, 
harp  players,  and  singers,  might  greatly  shorten  the  road  of  their 
studies ;  but,  unfortunately,  though  the  pure  vocal  style  contains  the 
soul  of  music,  the  idea  of  melody  is  a  much  purer  essence  than 
can  be  found  in  the  practice  of  the  best  singer  existing.  We  would 
rather  say,  "  listen  to  the  style  of  Willman  on  the  clarionet,"  as  a 
model  for  expressive  singing.  The  pupil  must  form  that  for  her 
self,  from  her  own  observation  and  feeling,  of  which  she  has  no 
copy :  the  comparison  of  a  great  composer's  most  frequent  phrases 
and  of  their  general  expression,  will  serve  to  show  what  he  most 
valued;  and  the  agreement  and  variation  of  the  eminent  musicians 
of  all  nations  and  times  will  form  a  tolerable  standard  of  musical 
beauty :  yet  still  there  must  be  a  capacity  for  feeling  that  beauty. 
Rules,  though  here  indeterminate,  may  be  useful ;  and,  at  the  least, 
protect  from  glaring  error.  The  allegro  must  be  characterised  by 
the  brilliancy  and  energy,  resulting  from  strength  of  the  hand,  and 
elasticity  of  the  fingers:  it  must  be  strongly  defined  in  its  princi- 
pal features;  and  whatever  melodious  passages  may  occur,  they 
must  not  alter  the  time  so  strikingly  (now  the  usual  license  of 
modern  music)  as  to  leave  the  nature  of  the  movement  in  any 
doubt.  The  delivery  of  the  adagio  is  directly  opposed  to  that  of 
the  allegro ;  for  here  the  notes,  instead  of  being  crisp  and  brilliant, 
require  to  be  well  sustained,  and  the  intervals  well  connected,  in 
imitation  of  the  most  polished  vocal  style.  In  this  movement  it 
will  be  especially  requisite  that  there  should  exist  the  acutest  sen- 
sibility in  the  fingers  themselves,  extending  to  the  very  tips,  that 
the  necessary  pressure  may  be  given  with  the  minutest  accuracy ; 
and  that  the  contact  may  be  varied  from  delicacy  to  force  at  plea- 
sure. The  embellishments  introduced  in  this  style  must  be  sparing, 
that  the  solemnity  and  purity  of  the  melody  be  not  overloaded  with 
finery,  and  vulgarized;  those  that  are  used  should  be  more  slow 
and  connected  than  in  the  allegro,  and  the  whole  should  be  marked 
by  greater  effusion  and  tenderness. 

The  piano-forte  and  harp  are  instruments  which,  from  their 
nature,  are  calculated  to  lead  people  into  an  inexpressive  mode  of 
performance.  Modern  improvements  in  the  execution,  which  have 
resulted  from  the  experiments  of  the  great  performers  abroad,  have, 
at  length,  elicited  a  manner  of  singing  on  the  keys  of  a  piano- 
forte ;  and  instructions  upon  the  mode  of  practice  become  neces- 
sary, as  the  method  of  arriving  at  this  excellence  is  obscure.  The 
harp  is  still  more  deficient  in  portamento  than  the  piano ;  but 


384  MUSIC. 

La  Barre  is  remedying  this  defect;   a  project  which,  twenty  years 
ago,  would  have  been  thought  chimerical. 

In  music,  the  principal  beauty  rests  upon  two  grand  points: — 
continuity  of  tone,  and  swell ;  and  where  these  are  defective  in  the 
nature  of  instruments,  art  must  supply  them.  How  much  a  poor 
monotonous  harmony  contents  the  ear,  when  the  gradations  are 
beautiful  and  delicate,  we  may  note  in  the  instance  of  the  ^Eolian 
harp,  which,  moved  by  the  wantonness  of  the  passing  gust,  is 
listened  to  with  pleasure,  though  it  repeat  nothing  more  than  the 
same  sounds:  and  we  may  observe  how  continuity  and  flow  of 
sound  stand  instead  of  expression  in  the  tones  of  an  organ ;  where, 
though  there  be  no  augmentation  or  diminution,  we  cannot  help 
being  affected  by  the  mere  quality  of  the  sound.  When,  then,  we 
hear  a  fine  composition,  finely  played  on  a  fine  instrument,  we 
have  a  very  unusual  conjunction  of  favourable  circumstances.  So 
much  rests  with  the  humour  of  the  performer,  so  much  on  that  of 
the  hearer, — for  there  are  numberless  causes  to  interfere  with 
an  enjoyment  that  depends  upon  the  nerves, — that  we  hold  the 
highest  gratification  of  music,  to  a  refined  taste,  to  be  matter  of 
rare  occurrence.  It  is,  however,  the  more  relished  when  it  comes; 
and  it  follows,  from  the  very  nature  of  intense  pleasures,  that  they 
must  be  rare.  This  ought  not  to  be  made  an  argument  for  the 
neglect  in  cultivating  the  powers :  we  know  well  that  the  little  girl 
who  attempts  "  God  save  the  King,"  is  as  much  enchanted  by  her 
efforts,  as  she  is,  perhaps,  ten  years  after,  by  the  playing  of  a 
concerto;  yet  has  she  thus  far  gained  by  practice  and  knowledge — 
that  she  values  her  own  dexterity  at  little,  the  music  itself  is  after- 
wards everything.  In  the  early  practice,  the  accomplishment  of 
the  means  gives  the  enjoyment, — later  (in  those  who  have  musical 
gifts,)  the  end  is  esteemed:  as  it  is  the  constant  aim  of  art  to 
improve  what  is  beautiful  in  nature,  so  it  is  the  end  of  taste  to 
heighten  our  pleasure,  and  carry  forward  the  principles  into  a  per- 
fection which  most  desire  and  expect  to  discover, — a  faith  most 
conducive  to  our  lasting  attachment  to  the  beautiful  or  scientific, — 
for  if  we  believe  that  we  see  and  hear  constantly  all  that  is  pos- 
sible, our  likings  will  soon  dwindle  into  indifference. 

A  concert  room  is,  perhaps,  the  best  place  to  acquire  a  relish  for 
full  harmony,  and  to  understand  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  in 
compositions,  which  cannot  be  comprehended  but  by  a  power  of 
reading  from  score,  or  hearing  the  instruments  as  they  are  combined 
and  placed  in  relief  by  the  composer ;  but  for  solo  pieces,  and  for 


MUSIC.  385 

getting  into  the  heart  of  a  good  composition,  or  style  of  playing, 
the  private  acquaintance  of  a  fine  performer  is  preferable.  That 
state  of  formality  arising  from  the  consciousness  of  being  under 
the  gaze  of  the  public,  does  not  dispose  either  the  player  or  singer 
to  give  way  to  the  feelings :  the  daring  attempts  which  often  lead  to 
perfection  are  not  risked,  where  the  consequences  of  failure  would 
be  more  detrimental  than  those  of  success  advantageous.  The 
hearer,  too,  is  in  a  formal  state ;  more  prepared  for  criticism  than 
for  pleasure.  In  private,  the  best  commentary  on  a  good  passage 
is  the  smile  of  a  masterly  player:  how  sweetly  does  such  a  silent 
admonition  sink  into  the  mind,  and  how  soon  do  we  learn  to  enjoy 
by  the  force  of  sympathy ! 

Perfect  freedom  from  affectation  is  a  great  charm  in  performance, 
though  it  ought  to  be  a  negative  virtue.  The  ordinary  process  by 
which  players  would  indicate  the  great  effect  their  author  produces 
upon  them,  is,  nodding  of  the  head, — distorting  and  writhing  of  the 
body, — lifting  up  of  the  hands,  as  though  the  keys  were  hot,  with 
many  other  absurdities,  which  it  would  be  well  they  could  see  in 
a  glass. 

In  playing  concertantes,  or  pieces  with  accompaniments,  inde- 
cision of  time  at  the  outset  induces  a  wavering  and  uncertain 
manner  throughout;  it  is  tormenting  to  the  listener,  and  increases, 
tenfold,  the  difficulty  of  the  accompanying  performers;  it  be 
therefore,  strongly  to  be  recommended,  that  the  time  should  be 
well  decided  in  the  mind  of  the  principal  player  before  the  piece 
be  commenced.  If  the  piece  be  of  the  bravura  kind,  let  the  move- 
ment be  spirited,  but  not  over-driven;  for  extreme  velocity  is 
generally  resorted  to  as  a  covering  for  indistinct  execution :  para- 
doxical as  it  may  seem,  there  are  many  players,  who,  if  they 
were  compelled  to  restrain  their  fingers  to  a  proportion  of  twice 
the  usual  length  they  give  to  the  bar,  would  be  unable  to  go 
through  the  movement.  In  compositions  of  the  sonata,  or  quar- 
tette species,  in  which  the  author  distributes  his  ideas  equally 
through  all  the  parts,  the  hurrying  of  an  allegro  generally  leads 
to  the  utter  destruction  of  the  character  and  clearness  of  the 
subjects ;  for  as  Mozart  himself  observed,  it  is  a  mistake  to  think 
that  rapidity  of  movement  gives  fire  to  the  music;  if  the  ideas 
themselves  are  deficient  in  it,  quick  playing  will  never  supply  it. 
The  choice  of  time,  or  measure,  in  a  composition,  is  indeed  an 
exact  criterion  of  the  judgment,  feeling,  and  taste,  in  a  per- 
former: nervousness,  or  hurry  of  the  spirits,  may  sometimes 
occasion  a  miscalculation ;  but,  generally  speaking,  nothing  affords 


386  MUSIC. 

a  readier  proof  of  a  musical  mind,  than  excellency  in  this  respect. 
Maelzel's  metronome  has  reduced  the  time  of  modern  compositions 
to  a  certainty;  but  pieces  written  before  the  invention  of  this 
useful  machine,  are  all  bequeathed  to  the  careful  consideration  of 
the  player;  the  vague  Italian  terms  preiixed  to  them  announcing 
nothing  beyond  the  style.  Not  to  abuse  this  confidence,  we  must 
make  proper  discrimination  between  the  ancient  and  modern 
allegro,  as  well  as  between  the  oldfashioned  minuet,  and  that 
invented,  or  rather  perfected,  by  Haydn.  As  a  general  principle, 
;in  error  on  the  side  of  slowness  of  time  is  more  tolerable  than 
the  contrary. 

The  art  of  accompaniment  to  vocal  music  is,  though  an  un- 
pretending study,  a  branch  of  practical  music  which  requires  the 
utmost  nicety.  So  sensible  was  Haydn  of  its  importance,  that, 
when  a  boy,  he  paid  his  court  to  Porpora,  an  old,  ill-tempered 
musician  of  great  science;  and  endured  hard  words,  interspersed 
with  knocks,  rather  than  miss  the  opportunity  of  his  advice  upon 
this  subject.  In  vocal  music,  the  piano-forte  is  to  be  completely 
subordinate;  the  accompanyist  must  attend  upon  the  voice,  and 
watch  the  singer  in  any  little  deviation  from  time ;  the  effect  of 
the  fingers  upon  the  keys  must  be  rather  felt  than  heard;  and, 
except  in  a  ritornello.,  or  intervening  symphony,  the  instrument 
must  never  be  prominent.  Some  exception,  however,  is  to  be 
made  in  respect  of  operatic  music,  particularly  of  the  German 
school,  of  which  the  instrumental  parts  form  too  remarkable  a 
feature  to  be  neglected,  though  great  delicacy  should  regulate  the 
execution  of  them.  Coarseness  and  loudness  of  accompaniment, 
and  a  proneness  to  run  about  upon  the  keys,  are  in  opposition 
to  the  fundamental  maxims  of  this  part  of  the  science ;  but  in- 
stances may  be  found,  in  which  rules  may  be  relaxed.  When 
three  or  four  voices  are  united,  the  province  of  the  player  is  to 
render  assistance  to  any  insecure  or  wavering  performer ;  to  be 
ready  to  prompt  her  with  the  note,  yet  so  as  not  to  expose  her 
inefficiency. 

Although  the  taste  for  melody  and  harmony  is  generally  con- 
joined, yet,  in  some  cases,  the  one  will  arrive  at  perfection,  while 
the  other  remains  very  immature.  To  avoid  this,  there  is  scarcely 
a  better  mode  than  that  of  listening  to  fine  recitative, — a  part  of 
dramatic  music,  in  which,  Mozart,  Gluck,  and  Cimarosa,  have 
left  behind  them  specimens  of  perfect  expression,  and  such  modu- 
lation as  cannot  fail,  when  felt  as  it  ought  to  be,  to  bring  the  taste 
to  very  great  refinement.  At  the  opera  we  may  generally  notice 


MUSIC.  387 

that  the  recitative  passes  off  unattended  to ;  indeed,  modern  com- 
posers are  so  sensible  of  the  neglect  bestowed  upon  recitative,  with 
the  old  accompaniments  of  the  violoncello  and  piano-forte,  or 
harpsichord,  that  they  have  almost  abolished  the  use  of  them  for 
the  more  noisy  effects  of  the  full  orchestra ;  and  sacrificed  one  of 
their  most  powerful  contrasts  to  the  impatience  of  ill-educated 
ears.  Most  people,  however  incompetent  to  perform  a  beautiful 
melody,  are  sensible  to  its  charms ;  but  the  taste  for  very  exquisite 
successions  of  harmonies,  is  of  rare  occurrence.  We  usually  find, 
that  the  last  attainment  of  a  great  singer  is  the  true  style  of  reci- 
tative, which,  as  it  wholly  depends  upon  the  impression  the  chords 
of  the  composer  make,  may  be  considered  a  proof  that  the  sus- 
ceptibility to  emotions  from  harmony,  attends  only  an  advanced 
state  of  the  taste. 

Having  noted  down  some  remarks  which  may  be  calculated  to 
assist  the  progress  of  the  student,  from  her  first  steps  up  to  that 
point  at  which  mechanical  labour  ceases  to  be  useful,  we  shah"  re- 
vert a  little  to  the  earlier  part  of  instruction  on  the  piano-forte,  to 
consider  some  of  those  errors  which  render  acquirement  of  a  smooth 
and  rounded  style  of  performance  impracticable.  Many  a  child,  of 
excellent  disposition  for  music,  has  been  ruined  as  a  performer,  by 
being  left  too  much  alone  in  the  outset,  or  too  much  to  the  super- 
intendence of  a  governess,  who,  with  little  ear,  knowledge  of  time, 
or  experience  in  teaching,  suffers  her  pupil  to  practise  waltzes, 
dances,  and  other  little  tunes ;  satisfied  of  the  progress  made,  if  the 
notes  be  expeditiously  read  and  played.  Parents  are  commonly  too 
anxious  to  see  results  from  the  attendance  of  an  instructor,  and 
if  a  governess  be  not  employed,  they  require  to  hear  tunes  by 
which  alone  they  judge  of  their  children's  profit,  and  fondly  anti- 
cipate all  their  future  cleverness.  Alas!  these  expectations  are 
seldom  realized.  A  good  master,  during  the  first  year  of  his  em- 
ployment, is  occupied  in  forming  the  hand,  training  the  fingers,  and 
beguiling,  by  a  pleasant  and  amusing  manner,  the  unpleasing  labour 
which  is  found  at  the  beginning  of  music,  by  all  young  and  lively 
children ;  in  whom  to  create  an  interest,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
repress  the  desire  for  getting  forward,  is  not  one  of  the  least  diffi- 
culties with  which  he  has  to  contend.  Without  a  thorough  and 
gradual  exercise  of  the  fingers  at  the  first,  to  render  them  equal  in 
power,  and  capable  of  acting  independently  of  each  other,  the  ad- 
vanced stages  of  execution  will  be  indistinct  and  slovenly;  the  fingers 
will  be  seen  either  to  dance  upon  the  keys,  or  else  to  stick  toge- 
ther and  hold  down  more  notes  than  are  required ;  the  wrists  will 


388  MUSIC. 

be  stiff,  the  arms  full  of  motion,  and  the  body  awkward.  Notwith- 
standing the  outcry  which  has  been  raised  against  Logier's  system 
of  musical  education,  much  of  it  is  admirable,  and  particularly  the 
use  of  the  chiroplast,  or  hand-guide,  for  which  there  is  no  substitute 
but  the  constant  eye  of  a  master;  and,  as  the  employment  of  Lo- 
gier's machine  causes  a  saving  both  of  time  and  expense,  it  is  to  be 
recommended.  The  want  of  precision  in  counting  the  time,  en- 
sues from  neglecting  it  as  unnecessary  at  first:  so  important  is  it  to 
lay  the  proper  emphasis  in  performance,  that  from  the  commence- 
ment of  playing  from  notes,  even  while  the  pupil  reads  with  hesi- 
tation, the  master  should  count  aloud.  For  the  first  half-year, 
and  even,  if  possible,  for  the  first  entire  year,  every  beginner  re- 
quires one  hour's  daily  instruction,  because  the  pupil  is  at  this  time 
incapable  of  assisting  herself,  and  if  left  too  long  alone  will  be  in- 
jured by  contracting  bad  habits;  for  every  repeated  mistake,  or 
erroneous  notion  persisted  in,  causes  infinite  trouble  to  the  master 
and  pupil,  even  if  it  do  not  become  permanent.  The  state  of  the 
piano-forte  should  be  constantly  attended  to;  it  should  never  be 
suffered  to  remain  out  of  tune,  to  the  injury  of  the  ear,  and  perhaps 
to  the  creating  of  a  distaste  for  music.  The  earlier  the  pupil  is 
enabled  to  tell  the  signatures  of  the  keys,  and  the  meaning  of  all 
the  marks  used  in  music,  and  accustomed  to  pay  the  most  exact  at- 
tention to  them,  the  easier  arid  more  satisfactory  will  be  the 
progress.  As  many  changes  as  can  be  played  without  altering  the 
position  of  the  hands  upon  five  notes>  first  separately,  and  then 
together,  including  double  notes  carefully  articulated,  will  have 
excellent  influence  upon  the  fingers,  and  ensure  a  beautiful  posi- 
tion of  the  hand  and  wrist.  Whatever  the  lessons  be  that  are 
intermingled  with  the  exercises  of  a  beginner,  they  should  not 
contain  any  harmonies  of  a  refined  and  unusual  kind,  that  may 
leave  the  ear  in  doubt,  and  confuse  the  ideas  of  right  and  wrong; 
mistakes  of  this  sort  are  common  in  juvenile  pieces,  and  they  lead 
to  this  consequence,  that  false  notes  at  length  pass  unconnected. 

The  whole  varieties  of  notes  between  the  space  of  a  sixth,  seventh, 
and  octave,  should  next  be  followed  up  unremittingly;  taking 
care  to  let  the  weight  of  the  hand  incline  rather  on  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  than  on  the  third  and  fourth,  which  have  enough  to  do 
to  perform  their  own  duty  The  scales  major  and  minor  will  suc- 
ceed,— first  within  the  compass  of  an  octave,  then  to  a  tenth  and  to 
two  octaves;  next  the  chromatic  scale  in  octaves,  thirds,  and  sixths, 
in  similar  and  contrary  motion ;  and  the  concluding  exercise  will 
consist  of  the  scales,  both  major  and  minor,  in  thirds,  tenths,  and 


MUSIC.  389 

sixths,  to  be  practised  in  the  same  way.  The  object  of  the  modern 
system  of  training  the  fingers  is  to  prepare  them  for  all  difficulties 
that  may  present  themselves  in  the  performance  of  sonatas  or 
concertos; — in  fact,  by  anticipating  every  possible  combination  of 
notes,  to  remove  difficulty  entirely ;  and  no  labour  is  so  serviceable 
to  this  purpose  as  early  labour,  while  the  hand  is  plastic,  and  the 
taste  not  too  refined  to  endure  constant  repetition.  If  two  fingers 
be  found  particularly  attached  to  each  other,  so  that  one  will  not 
move  unless  the  other  do,  care  should  be  taken  to  exercise  each 
separately,  holding  down  all  the  fingers  but  the  acting  one,  which 
must  be  raised  and  made  to  strike  firmly,  while  all  the  others  remain 
free  from  any  kind  of  motion.  A  table,  or  any  flat  and  hard  surface 
will  serve  equally  well  to  break  in  the  fingers  as  an  instrument ;  and 
the  pupil  must  observe,  that  a  pain  in  the  wrist  or  up  the  arm  is 
the  signal  to  persevere,  and  not  to  leave  off  practice.  The  use  of 
the  thumb  and  little  finger  on  the  black  keys  is  rendered  absolutely 
indispensable  by  the  style  of  writing  at  present  in  use ;  through 
this  employment  of  them  we  are  not  obliged  unnecessarily  to  pass 
the  thumb  under  the  fingers,  or  the  fingers  over  the  thumb,  and 
in  this  manner  we  arrive,  in  many  passages,  at  a  more  convenient, 
certain,  and  connected  performance.  The  key,  however,  if  in 
many  sharps  or  flats,  or  otherwise,  must  determine  the  propriety 
of  employing  the  fingering  we  have  mentioned.  In  passages 
where  the  thumb  and  little  finger  are  frequently  placed  upon  the 
black  keys,  the  white  are  to  be  struck,  not  in  front  of,  but  between 
the  black  keys;  and  in  passages  which  lie  altogether  upon  the 
black  keys,  the  hand  must  be  raised  over  them,  and  this  new  posi- 
tion considered  as  if  the  passage  were  to  be  played  on  white  keys 
entirely. 

It  is  a  great  impediment  to  neatness  of  execution,  that  begin- 
ners, who  are  generally  rather  uncertain  and  nervous,  incline  to 
hurry  the  time  just  in  proportion  as  they  feel  excited  by  the  music ; 
and  that,  in  playing  before  company,  when  this  fault  should  be 
most  hidden,  it  is  most  apparent.  The  pupil  should  endeavour  to 
hold  in  the  time,  and  play  progressively  slower;  thus,  by  keeping 
a  tight  rein  upon  her  inclination,  she  will  have  a  fair  chance  of 
succeeding  in  what  she  attempts :  whereas,  should  she  add  addi- 
tional swiftness  to  uncertainty,  the  probability  is,  that  the  composi- 
tion she  would  perform  will  run  into  an  unmeaning  jumble. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  effects  of  which  the  piano-forte  is 
capable,  is  the  distribution  of  chords  in  divisions  arpeggio,  a  means 
of  prolonging  the  harmony,  and  producing,  in  some  degree,  the 

* 


390  MUSIC. 

charm  of  sustained  sounds ;  the  best  masters  employ  the  passage 
for  this  purpose,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  preludes  of  Sebastian 
Bach  to  the  piano-forte  music  of  J.  B.  Cramer;  and  it  may  be 
observed,  with  respect  to  chords  generally,  that  instead  of  striking 
every  note  at  once,  the  arpeggio  has  more  expression  and  beauty, 
and  should,  therefore,  be  preferred.  If  the  pedals  be  used  at 
all, — and  some  effects  of  combination  are  gained  when  they  are 
judiciously  introduced, — it  should  be  when  the  hand  and  eye  have 
attained  perfect  certainty,  and  not  before.  The  pupil  should  be 
early  accustomed  to  point  out  those  notes  which  require  to  be 
leaned  upon,  as  also  the  division  of  the  sentences  and  phrases  in 
a  composition,  which  practice  will  be  found  very  beneficial  to  mu- 
sical perception. 

In  the  playing  of  passages  of  embellished  melody  in  adagios, 
one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  to  the  performer  is  to  make  the 
hands  act  independently.  As  the  left  hand  is  the  basis  on  which 
the  notes  of  embellishment  are  founded,  grouped  in  various  num- 
bers, and  without  any  regular  distribution  as  to  measure,  it  must 
preserve  the  time  strictly.  The  player  must  also  previously  ex- 
amine and  compare  the  contents  of  all  the  bars,  and  select  that 
which  contains  the  largest  number  of  notes  of  embellishment  as 
the  guide  which  must  determine  the  quicker  or  slower  performance 
of  the  rest.  The  beginning  of  a  bar  must  be  played  rather  slower 
than  the  notes  which  succeed,  that  the  performer  may  not  have 
to  lengthen  out  the  remaining  part  of  a  passage,  in  order  to  fill  up 
the  time ;  and  that  a  chasm  may  never  be  left  by  miscalculation, 
and  one  part  be  concluded  before  the  other.  Embellished  adagios 
cannot  be  played  without  the  nicest  accuracy,  and  as  these 
movements  require  to  be  executed  with  lightness,  tielicacy,  and 
the  utmost  possible  finish,  they  should  be  cautiously  attempted ;  for 
the  step  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous  is  oftener  exemplified 
in  the  adagio  than  in  any  other  style  of  music.  Generally  speaking, 
an  ascending  series  of  notes  should  be  played  louder  and  louder  by 
degrees,  and  when  there  is  an  imitation  between  the  hands,  both 
must  observe  the  same  expression.  If,  after  a  short  note  which 
takes  place  on  the  accented  time  of  the  measure,  a  longer  note  on 
the  unaccented  time  should  succeed,  the  latter  usually  requires  an 
emphasis.  When  two  notes  are  slurred  together,  the  first  must  be 
marked  by  an  emphasis,  and  the  finger  gently  taken  up  from  the 
key  immediately  after  the  second  note  is  struck,  and  before  its 
time  has  expired.  Passages  of  dotted  notes  are  generally  played 
as  if  rests  stood  in  the  places  of  the  dots ;  unless  a  slur  should  be 


MUSIC.  391 

drawn  over  several  of  them,  in  which  case,  they  should  be  held  out 
their  full  time. 

The  piano-forte  is  seldom  commenced  at  an  age  when  the  pupil 
can  determine  for  herself  what  point  of  excellence  it  is  desirable  to 
reaeh,  which  must  alone  decide  the  degree  of  application  necessary 
to  attain  the  object.  If  it  be  merely  a  superficial  accomplishment, 
proceeding  no  farther  than  to  the  accompanying  of  songs,  a  few 
easy  sonatas  and  studios  will  enable  her  to  read  with  sufficient 
readiness  to  do  this  correctly:  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that 
whatever  be  the  end  proposed,  the  practice  must  be  more  difficult ; 
for  when  a  performer  is  placed  to  a  composition  which  tries  her 
powers  to  the  very  utmost,  the  effect  is  never  pleasing  to  the 
hearer.  Thus,  the  player  of  sonatas  must  aim  at  concertos  in 
private;  the  concerto  performer  must  find  something  more  difficult 
than  the  music  she  attempts :  for  the  having  of  force  in  reserve, 
gives  an  ease  and  beauty  to  the  performance,  which  an  audience 
quickly  distinguishes  from  labored  correctness.  When  we  hear 
Mr.  Cramer  play  a  concerto  on  the  piano-forte,  we  may  observe 
how  particularly  satisfactory  and  delightful  is  his  execution  from 
this  very  circumstance;  the  passages  are  so  easy  to  him,  and 
the  grasp  and  command  of  his  hand  are  so  great,  that  what  we 
hear  is  not  only  all  that  we  can  wish,  but  more  than  we  expect. 
To  see  a  pale,  anxious  face  brought  up  to  the  piano-forte  by  a  per- 
former who  dreads  the  approaching  concerto,  is  pitiable ;  and  no 
less  unpleasant  is  it  to  see  the  vehement  exertion  and  labour  of 
one  who  can  but  just  scramble  through  the  passages.  There  can 
be  nothing  artificial  or  graceful  in  execution  that  is  not  accom- 
panied with  ease. 

At  present  there  is  scarcely  a  necessity  for  enjoining  the  study 
of  the  good  masters,  for  the  works  of  Beethoven,  Haydn,  Handel, 
Bach,  and  Mozart,  are  making  their  way  satisfactorily  in  the  mu- 
sical circles.  Lectures  are  becoming  common,  and  are  generally 
well  attended  by  ladies,  to  whom  we  would  recommend,  that  they 
should  take  with  them,  on  these  occasions,  the  composition  which 
is  die  subject  of  discourse,  and  refer  on  the  spot  to  the  passages  and 
particular  effects  cited  by  the  lecturer.  No  means  can  be  better 
adapted  to  shorten  the  long  and  laborious  pursuit  which  is  necessary 
to  acquire  taste  in  music,  than  lectures  skilfully  written  and  well 
illustrated ;  for  they  present  the  results  of  reading,  experience,  and 
observation,  which  the  casual  reader  or  student  might  draw  but 
imperfectly  if  left  to  her  own  guidance.  It  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
that  feats  of  dexterity  in  the  performance  of  the  illustrations  should 
33* 


392  MUSIC. 

occupy  too  much  attention,  and  when  sinfonias,  modern  overtures, 
and  other  full  and  difficult  pieces  are  referred  to  and  played,  to 
exemplify  remarks,  if  they  were  executed  by  two  performers 
instead  of  one,  the  effect  would  be  enriched,  and  the  skill  of  the 
lecturer  as  a  performer  would  not  distract  us  from  his  commentary. 
This  word,  however,  we  only  bestow,  en  passant,  upon  those  who 
run  to  lectures  wholly  for  the  sake  of  the  piano-forte  playing. 

When  scores  of  the  greatest  works  in  music  become  generally 
diffused,  as  it  is  not  improbable  they  may,  in  this  age  of  mechanical 
invention,  a  source  of  delightful  interest  will  be  opened  to  the 
amateur;  those  operations  of  the  composer's  mind,  of  which  the 
combinations  of  the  orchestra  now  leave  the  hearer  to  a  faint  and 
unprofitable  conjecture,  may  then  be  distinctly  traced  on  paper : — 
the  memory  will  be  no  longer  taxed  to  discover  the  correspondence 
of  the  parts;  and  as  the  author's  design  is  unfolded,  we  shall 
derive  new  gratification  from  seeing  its  perfect  symmetry.  There 
is  something  absurd,  though  well  meant,  in  informing  the  mixed 
audience  of  a  musical  lecture,  most  of  whom  never  saw  a  score,  that 
Mozart  or  Beethoven  does  this  or  that,  with  the  second  violin,  or  the 
viola ; — without  the  means  of  reference,  they  are  literally  as  wise  as 
they  were  before :  but  it  is  obvious,  that  good  remarks  in  this  manner, 
bestowed  upon  those  who  have  acquired  facility  in  reading  music, 
and  have  the  passage  at  hand,  will  greatly  profit  the  observant 
listener. 

Of  late  years,  the  fault  of  our  instrumental  music  has  been  an 
extravagance  of  execution,  which  argued  as  pitiful  an  ambition  in 
the  player  as  want  of  intelligence  in  the  hearer ;  for  what  must  be 
the  state  of  that  musical  mind  that  is  satisfied  with  an  exhibition 
of  passages'?  As  days  have  neither  lengthened,  nor  the  allowance 
of  fingers  been  increased  since  the  rage  for  the  wonderful  in  exe- 
cution first  infected  the  public,  the  malady  has  cured  itself;  for 
where  mere  labour  could  command  the  attention  which  was  for- 
merly bestowed  on  genius,  the  candidates  were  not  likely  to  be 
few ;  the  number  of  performers  who  have  succeeded  in  the  clash- 
ing style,  has,  at  length,  brought  the  rattling  of  the  finger-board 
into  contempt.  This  sleight  of  hand,  when  used  only  as  such, 
contributes  to  nothing  but  the  vanity  of  the  performer,  and  the 
debasing  of  the  noble  and  intellectual  ideas  which  it  is  the  province 
of  music  to  excite, — a  style  not  at  all  incompatible  with  piano- 
forte music,  as  Beethoven  and  Mozart  have  shown  us;  we,  there- 
fore, most  earnestly  repeat,  that  execution  is  only  commendable 
as  it  makes  the  meaning  of  the  author  apparent. 


MUSIC.  393 

Instrumental  music  of  the  higher  class  of  quartetts,  and  other 
models  of  pure  and  melodious  writing,  present,  to  a  practised  eye, 
so  much  consistency  and  propriety  in  the  consecution  of  ideas, 
that,  by  the  habit  of  reading  them,  the  good  composer  learns  to 
detect,  in  any  movement  submitted  to  his  inspection,  a  musical 
phrase  misplaced,  and  with  as  much  certainty  as  the  judicious 
critic  discovers  an  ill-constructed  sentence  in  an  essay.  It  is  related 
of  Beethoven,  that  on  the  first  sight  of  a  new  composition,  which 
was  handed  to  him  for  his  judgment,  he  pointed  at  once  to  a 
musical  phrase,  which  he  said  was  good  in  itself,  but  not  good  in 
the  situation  it  occupied ;  and  he  then  showed  the  place  in  which  it 
would  appear  with  the  best  effect.  Haydn,  also,  grounded  many  of 
his  slow  movements  on  the  incidents  of  some  little  plot  which  he 
had  himself  invented ;  and  these  authorities,  we  think,  show  that 
there  is  something  to  be  received  from  instrumental  music,  beyond 
the  merely  vague  sensations  of  elegance  or  tenderness,  and  cer- 
tainly beyond  that  titillation  of  the  ear,  to  which  many  debase 
this  exquisite  branch  of  composition:  it  follows,  that  if  in  work? 
of  established  excellence  we  are  unable  to  discover  a  meaning,  we 
must  rather  suspect  our  own  want  of  perception,  than  be  hasty  to 
condemn  the  dulness  of  the  composer.  Handel  and  Mozart,  as 
dramatic  musicians,  speak  for  themselves  to  the  hearts  even  of 
the  most  unpractised :  the  sacred  words  of  the  Messiah  may  in- 
deed elevate  our  ideas  of  music,  when  we  find  that  sentiment  and 
expression  can  be  so  exalted  and  so  perfect  as  in  that  great  work. 

The  transposition  of  pieces  from  one  key  into  another  is  not 
only  a  highly  useful  ability  in  the  player,  but  are  of  the  most  im- 
proving studies  in  harmony  that  can  be  made.  As  those  who 
undertake  to  accompany  vocal  pieces  will  frequently  find  that  airs 
lie  out  of  the  compass  of  particular  voices,  and  that  there  is  a 
necessity  for  relieving  them  by  a  change  of  key,  ease  and  certainty 
in  transposing,  are  an  important  object  in  practical  music.  The 
first  essays,  should  be  made  with  simple  and  well  known  tunes ; 
altering  them  from  the  original  key,  to  some  one  not  too  remote, 
that  the  analogy  be  not  wholly  lost — from  C  to  D,  from  E  to  E  flat, 
and  the  like;  and,  as  these  exercises  go  on  increasing  in  difficulty 
it  will  be  found  that  the  relation  of  harmonies  becomes  clearer  to 
the  mind,  and  that  the  knowledge  of  modulation  practically  is 
increased. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  observe,  that  whatever  time  be  be- 
stowed on  the  cultivation  of  music,  it  should  be  with  a  view  to 
enlarge  our  apprehension  of  the  art  in  general,  rather  than  to 


394 


MUSIC 


confine  ourselves  to  one  particular  style  or  instrument,  imagining 
that  nothing  beyond  these  is  worthy  of  attention.  The  study  of 
the  piano-forte,  which  comprises,  within  the  compass  of  a  single 
pair  of  hands,  as  much  of  harmony  as  is  necessary  to  enjoyment, 
offers  the  greatest  facilities  to  the  improvement  of  the  musical 
mind ;  and  the  amateur,  who  has  accomplished  sufficient  variety 
of  mechanical  difficulty  to  play  with  freedom  and  ease,  will  find  it 
more  pleasing  to  extend  her  studies  into  the  styles  of  masters,  than 
to  prosecute  her  practice  on  the  piano-forte  to  a  very  high  degree 
of  perfection.  A  great  deal  of  pleasure  is  lost  by  encouraging 
exclusiveness  and  bigotry  of  taste,  which  are  ever  attendant  on  a 
vulgar  idea  of  music ;  but  where  we  enter  into  the  scientific  prin- 
ciples of  harmony,  and  distinguish  the  niceties  in  various  styles 
of  composers,  our  delight  will  be  certain,  and  in  strict  proportion 
to  the  accuracy  and  extent  of  our  knowledge. 


I 


DANCING 


The  song  has  ceas'd, 
And  young  Rinaldo  leads  the  lady  forth 
To  dance  a  graceful  measure  on  the  turf.     ' 

USIC  and  Painting  possess  many  advantages 
over  the  art  on  which  we  are  about  to  treat ; 
but  in  no  point  of  view  is  their  superiority 
to  dancing  so  conspicuous  as  in  the  zeal 
displayed  by  private  individuals  to  attain 
the  excellences  of  the  professional  painter 
or  musician;  while,  however  greatly  the 
graceful  movements  of  a  first-rate  public  dancer  may  be  admired, 
in  society  they  are  never  imitated.  It  is  usual,  and  doubtless 
judicious  to  foster  a  talent  for  painting  and  music,  and  to  push 
the  pupil  forward  as  far  toward  perfection  as  circumstances  will 
permit;  not  with  a  view  to  the  adoption  of  the  art  cultivated  as 
a  profession,  but  as  being  a  valuable  accomplishment  in  private 
life:  the  more  difficult  studies,  and  that  kind  of  practice  which 
leads  to  excellence  in  the  art  of  Dancing,  on  the  contrary,  are 
never  entered  into,  except  by  those  who  purpose  appearing  upon 
the  stage.  To  emulate  the  master-touches  of  the  painter  or  mu- 
sician, is  deemed  meritorious  in  almost  every  class  of  society;  the 
amateur  who  either  wields  the  brush  or  touches  the  piano,  adopts 
the  same  style,  and  occasionally  rivals  the  execution  of  the  pro- 
fessor ;  but  public  and  private  dancing  are  so  exceedingly  different 


396  DANCING. 

from  each  other,  that  what  may  be  deemed  a  beauty  in  the  one, 
would  justly  be  considered  a  defect  in  the  other :  it  is  the  ambition 
of  the  artiste  to  astonish  and  delight ;  the  lady  who  joins  in  a 
quadrille,  aspires  only  to  glide  through  the  figure  with  easy  and 
unobtrusive  grace.  A  fine  piano-forte  performer  is  expected  to 
play  with  equal  spirit  at  a  private  party  as  in  the  conc»jrt-room,  the 
musician's  art  being  everywhere  the  same;  but  it  would  be  in 
the  extreme  of  bad  taste  for  the  ball-room  dancer  to  attempt  the 
least  brilliant  of  those  embellishments  to  "  the  poetry  of  motion," 
which  are  displayed  by  the  dancer  on  the  stage.  Hence,  it  is  not 
only  impossible  to  hold  up  any  public  professor  of  the  art  of 
dancing  as  a  model  for  the  pupil,  but  it  is  absolutely  incumbent  on 
the  master  to  warn  those  who  are  confided  to  his  instruction,  from 
aspiring  to  what  are  deemed  the  higher  walks  of  the  art.  In  those 
days  when  considerable  agility  was  required  to  avoid  unpleasant 
collisions  of  the  cumbrous  hoops  then  in  fashion,  and  distressing 
entanglements  of  the  festoons  with  which  they  were  adorned, 
during  the  mazy  figures  performed  in  the  ball-room, — fine  dancing 
was  deemed  an  accomplishment  of  first-rate  importance ;  but  at 
the  present  time,  although  every  lady  is  expected,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  to  dance  with  ease  and  correctness,  no  one  is  permitted 
to  be  brilliant.  Dancing  has  ceased  to  be  a  difficult  and  toilsome 
exercise,  and  is  now  softened  down,  as  it  certainly  should  be  in 
society,  to  an  agreeable  pastime.  It  must  not,  however,  be  for- 
gotten, that  the  ease,  grace,  and  neat  execution,  which  are  confi- 
dently looked  for  in  ball-room  dancing,  must  needs  be  the  result 
of  diligent  practice;  without  it,  the  pupil  cannot  expect  to  go 
through  a  quadrille  with  credit  to  herself,  or  comfort  to  those  with 
whom  she  happens  to  be  associated.  The  facility  displayed  by  the 
accomplished,  should  never  lead  her  to  imagine,  that  dancing,  as 
she  sees  it  practised,  is  easy  of  acquirement;  they  must  have  pre- 
viously devoted  that  attention  to  the  preliminaries  of  the  art, 
which  is  required  of  her  by  those  who  desire  to  see  her  capable  of 
displaying  an  equal  degree  of  ease  and  elegance. 

For  ages  past,  Terpsichore  has  had  innumerable  votaries ;  and 
dancing  will,  doubtless,  ever  be  a  source  of  pleasure  to  mankind 
while  graceful  motion  is  admired,  and  joy  enlivens  the  earth  with 
even  "  brief  and  distant  glimpses  of  her  face."  Various  eminent 
authors  have  written  in  its  praise,  not  merely  as  an  accomplish- 
ment, but  as  a  graceful  and  beneficial  exercise:  among  its  advo- 
cates in  this  country,  are  Locke,  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury, 
Addison,  and  others  of  deservedly-high  reputation. 


DANCING.  397 

The  great  Locke,  in  his  Treatise  on  Education,  says, "  Dancing, 
being  that  which  gives  graceful  motion  to  all  our  lives,  and  above 
all  things,  manliness,  and  a  becoming  confidence  to  young  children, 
I  think,  cannot  be  learned  too  early.  Nothing  appears  to  me 
to  give  children  so  much  confidence  and  behaviour,  and  so  to  raise 
them  to  the  conversation  of  those  above  their  years,  as  dancing.5' 

Lord  Herbert,  of  Cherbury,  to  whom  the  world  is  indebted 
for  some  excellent  remarks  on  the  advancement  of  youth,  states, 
that  those  who  have  properly  learned  to  dance,  appear  to  under- 
stand more  what  to  do  with  themselves,  and  to  have  more  freely 
and  elegantly  the  use  of  their  limbs,  and  command  of  their  car- 
riage, than  others;  who,  labouring  under  a  stiffness  in  their 
motions,  seem  as  though  they  were  taken  in  the  joints;  and 
appear  not  to  be  capable  either  of  sitting  down,  rising  up,  standing, 
or  walking,  in  a  manner  that  is  agreeable  to  the  eye  of  taste. 
He  also  observes,  that  those  who  have  been  taught  by  the  more 
accurate  dancing-masters,  enter  and  quit  a  room  where  company 
is,  and  address  themselves  to  persons,  both  above  and  below  their 
own  stations,  with  far  more  grace  and  propriety,  than  those  who 
have  not  had  similar  advantages. 

In  Fordyce's  Sermons  to  Young  Women,  the  author  observes, 
that  he  must  acknowledge  he  can  see  no  reason  for  declamation 
against  the  moderate  and  discreet  use  of  dancing.  "  I  freely  con- 
fess," he  adds,  f(  that  I  am  one  of  those  who  can  look  on  with  a 
very  sensible  satisfaction,  well  pleased  to  see  a  company  of  young 
people,  joyful  with  innocence,  and  happy  in  each  other.  If  an 
exercise  so  sociable  and  enlivening,  were  to  occupy  some  part  of 
that  time  which  is  lavished  on  cards,  would  the  youth  of  either 
sex  be  losers  by  it!  I  think  not.  It  seems  to  me,  there  can  be 
no  impropriety  in  it,  any  more  than  in  modulating  the  voice  into 
the  most  agreeable  tones  in  singing;  to  which  none,  I  think,  will 
object.  What  is  dancing,  in  the  most  rigid  sensej  but  the  har- 
mony of  motion  rendered  more  palpable  1  Awkwardness^  rusticity, 
ungraceful  gestures,  can  never  surely  be  meritorious." 

The  Spectator  is  also  an  advocate  for  dancing:  he  says,  in  one 
of  his  papers,  "  It  may  appear  odd,  that  I,  who  set  up  for  a  mighty 
lover,  at  least,  of  virtue,  should  take  so  much  pains  to  recommend 
what  the  soberer  part  of  mankind  look  upon  to  be  a  trifle;  but 
under  favour  of  the  soberer  part  of  mankind,  I  think  they  have 
not  enough  considered  this  matter,  and  for  that  reason  only  esteem 
it  so  lightly.  I  must  also,  in  my  own  justification,  say,  that  I 
attempt  to  bring  into  the  service  of  honour  and  virtue,  everything 


398  DANCING. 

in  nature  that  can  pretend  to  give  elegant  delight.  It  may  possibly 
be  proved,  that  vice  is  in  itself  destructive  of  pleasure,  and  virtue 
in  itself  conducive  to  it.  If  the  delights  of  a  free  fortune  were 
under  proper  regulation,  this  truth  would  not  want  much  argu- 
ment to  support  it ;  but  it  would  be  obvious  that  there  is  a  strict 
affinity  between  all  things  that  are  truly  laudable  and  beautiful, 
from  the  highest  sentiment  of  the  soul  to  the  most  indifferent 
gesture  of  the  body :  the  business  of  dancing  is  to  display  beauty ; 
and  for  that  reason  all  distortions  and  mimicries,  as  such,  are  what 
raise  aversion  instead  of  pleasure." 

Mrs.  Chapone  very  justly  remarks,  that  dancing  is  now  so 
universal,  that  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  the  education  of  a 
gentlewoman ;  that  it  is,  indeed,  both  useful  and  ornamental,  as 
it  forms  and  strengthens  the  body,  and  improves  the  carriage. 

Many  other  passages,  from  the  works  of  the  wise  and  good,  in 
old  times,  as  well  as  in  our  own  days,  might  be  adduced  in  favour 
of  the  Art  of  Dancing:  it  would,  however,  be  needless  to  add  to 
the  number,  as  enough  have  been  selected  to  show  the  high  esti- 
mation in  which  it  has  been  held,  by  writers  whose  opinions  merit 
the  utmost  respect. 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  DANCING. 

A  slight  sketch  of  the  history  of  this  agreeable  art,  will,  we 
doubt  not,  prove  acceptable  to  our  readers :  some  of  whom  may 
be  surprised  at  its  antiquity,  and  feel  considerable  pleasure  at 
being  informed,  that  this  recreation,  which,  in  modern  times,  is 
the  delight  of  the  youthful,  was  deemed  worthy  of  notice,  as  an 
amusing  and  beneficial  exercise,  by  many  of  the  sages  of  old 
times,  several  of  whom  were  at  once  fine  philosophers  and  good 
dancers,  and  a  few  of  them,  even  when  far  advanced  in  life,  became 
pupils  in  the  art.  Timocrates  first  beheld  an  entertainment  of 
dancing  in  his  old  age,  and  was  so  pleased  with  what  he  saw, 
that  he  is  said  to  have  exclaimed  against  himself  for  having  so 
long  sacrificed  such  an  exquisite  enjoyment  to  the  vain  pride  of 
philosophy. 

It  has  been  frequently  stated  by  authors,  that  music  and 
dancing,  as  well  as  many  other  useful  and  ornamental  arts,  origi- 
nated among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  A  gentleman,  however,  who, 
for  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life,  has  made  Egyptian  history, 
and  the  habits,  customs  and  manners  of  that  people  in  ancient 
times,  his  peculiar,  nay,  almost  exclusive  study,  assures  us,  that 


DANCING.  399 

during  the  whole  of  his  very  extensive  researches,  he  has  met  with 
no  historian  of  acknowledged  veracity,  by  whom  any  fact  is  re- 
corded in  support  of  the  claims  made  by  the  admirers  of  the  old 
Egyptians,  to  the  invention  of  those  arts:  nor  does  he  remember 
any  passage  in  the  numerous  hieroglyphic  sculptures  of  that 
country,  that  will  admit  of  such  an  interpretation :  on  the  contrary, 
he  states,  that  there  are  many  passages  in  the  historians,  and  nu- 
merous hieroglyphics,  by  which  it  is  inferred,  that  the  Egyptians 
were  averse  from  music ;  hence,  he  is  induced  to  think,  that  dancing, 
or,  rather,  that  species  of  the  practice  which,  in  after-times, 
arose  into  the  dignity  of  a  liberal  art,  was  unknown  to  them. 
It  seems  probable,  that  during  the  frequent  festivities  tolerated, 
or,  indeed,  encouraged,  by  the  rulers  of  that  people,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  dissipating  their  melancholy  habits,  when  their  minds 
were  under  the  strong  influence  of  almost  mental  inebriety,  their 
corporeal  powers  might  be  so  affected  as  to  produce  a  motion 
somewhat  akin  to  that  of  our  rude  country  boors,  upon  any  great 
excitement;  and  this,  the  authors  first  adverted  to  might  consider 
as  the  rudiments  of  dancing.  That  such  violent  and  half-frantic 
movements  might  have  been  produced  by  their  emotions,  whilst 
adoring  Pan,  or  his  representative,  the  sacred  goat,  at  Mendes, — 
that  these  extravagances  of  action  might  have  occurred  during  the 
procession  of  the  removal  of  the  shrine  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  usually 
deposited  at  Thebes,  to  Heliotropaze, — or  the  table  of  the  sun,  in 
the  Lybian  deserts, — or  at  the  feasts  of  Isis,  Osiris,  or  Jupiter 
Serapis,  in  Alexandria, — or  in  any  other  of  their  very  numerous 
religious  festivities, — it  would  be  folly  to  deny ;  but  such  temporary 
ebullitions  of  feelings  must  fall  far  short  of  anything  like  dancing, 
in  the  true  acceptation  of  the  word;  for  they  were  subject  to  no 
rules,  and  no  progress  in  the  art  seems  to  have  been  made. 

Among   the  Jews,   dancing   was   practised  at  their  religious 
ceremonies : — 

Soon  as  the  men  their  holy  dance  had  done, 
The  Hebrew  matrons  the  same  rites  begun  : 
Miriam,  presiding  o'er  the  female  throng, 
Begins,  and  suits  the  movement  to  the  song. 

The  Jews  probably  derived  this  custom  from  their  ancient  oppres 
sors,  the  Egyptians ;  for  we  find  that  they  indulged  in  it  during 
their  passage  through  the  wilderness,  shortly  after  their  departure 
from  the  land  of  Pharaoh.  David  danced  before  the  ark ;  Jephtha's 
daughter  is  described  as  meeting  her  father  with  a  dance ;  and  one 
of  the  joys  enumerated  by  the  Prophet,  when  foretelling  the  return 
34 


400  DANCING. 

of  the  Jews  from  captivity,  is  that  of  the  virgins  rejoicing  in  the 
dance. 

For  the  advancement  of  the  art  towards  some  degree  of  per- 
fection, we  must  look  to  Greece,  where  we  find  that  music  and 
dancing  were  cultivated  in  the  earliest  ages ;  and  where  the  latter 
still  seems  to  flourish,  notwithstanding  the  thraldom  in  which  the 
land  has  for  ages  been  held;  for,  according  to  De  Guys,  among  the 
modern  Greeks  the  passion  for  dancing  is  common  to  both  sexes, 
who  suffer  nothing  to  deter  them,  when  an  opportunity  occurs  of 
indulging  in  its  delights.  The  origin  of  this  art  is  thus  accounted 
for: — The  Curetes,  a  people  of  Sicily,  who  were  entrusted  with 
the  care  of  the  infant  Jupiter,  in  order  to  prevent  his  being  dis- 
covered by  his  father,  Saturn,  invented  a  kind  of  dance,  and 
drowned  his  cries  by  accompanying  their  movements  with  the 
sounds  of  their  shields  and  cymbals.  Although  the  invention  of 
the  art  'be  enveloped  in  fables,  we  have  authentic  records  of  its 
frequent  early  practice  among  the  Greeks ;  and  it  probably  attained 
to  a  considerable  degree  of  refinement.  They  seem  to  have  had 
three  principal  kinds  of  dances, — cordax,  emmelia,  and  siccinis, 
and,  doubtless,  numerous  subdivisions:  the  first,  which  consisted 
of  lively  movements,  Demosthenes  reproached  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon,  for  having  had  danced  in  his  presence :  the  second  was  of 
a  grave  and  stately  nature,  bearing,  probably,  some  resemblance 
to  the  modern  Minuet;  this,  if  our  memory  do  not  deceive  us, 
was  honoured  even  with  the  approbation  of  Plato :  the  third  was 
a  melange  of  the  two  others.  Merion  is  extolled  by  Homer  as  a 
dancer;  and  it  is  related  of  one  Hippocleides,  that  when  he  was 
about  to  be  chosen  from  among  a  crowd  of  competitors,  as  the 
fortunate  bridegroom  of  a  fair  virgin,  he  so  incensed  her  father, 
by  a  foolish  exhibition  of  his  powers  as  a  dancer,  that  the  old 
man  indignantly  said  to  him,  "  Son  of  Tisander,  you  have  danced 
away  your  wife!"  "Hippocleides  cares  not,"  was  the  reply;  and 
it  afterwards  became  a  proverbial  expression.  The  Athenians  had 
a  slow  movement,  which  they  danced  at  funeral  processions,  ac- 
companied with  solemn  music.  The  old  Spartans  had  a  dance 
in  honour  of  Saturn:  they  had  another  kind  of  dancing,  termed 
the  Phrygian,  which  was  the  step,  or  movement,  they  adopted 
when  advancing  to  attack  their  enemies ;  and,  according  to  Athe- 
naeus,  they  had  a  law,  by  which  their  children  were  compelled  to 
exercise  themselves  at  the  Pyrrhic  dance,  from  the  time  they 
attained  the  age  of  five.  Lycurgus  instituted  festivals  of  dancing 
in  honour  of  Apollo;  and  it  is  even  stated  of  the  philosopher, 


DANCING.  401 

Socrates,  whom  the  Delphic  oracle  had  proclaimed  the  wisest  of 
mankind,  and  who,  as  it  is  related,  was  a  pupil  of  Damon,  in 
the  art  of  music, — that  in  his  old  age  he  actually  received  in- 
structions in  dancing  from  the  accomplished  Aspasia.  Clarmidas, 
who  caught  him  dancing  one  morning  at  his  own  house,  upon  the 
circumstance  being  mentioned  by  Socrates  himself  to  his  disciples, 
observed,  that  he  was  so  astonished  at  first,  that  he  thought  the 
philosopher's  brain  was  turned;  but  that  afterwards,  when  he 
heard  the  reasons  given  by  Socrates  for  indulging  in  the  exercise, 
he  was  so  satisfied,  that  the  first  thing  he  did  on  his  return  home, 
was  to  follow  his  example.  At  the  funereal  games,  in  honour  of 
Patroclus,  a  kind  of  war-dance  constituted  one  of  the  ceremonies: 
it  is  supposed  to  have  been  invented  by  Neoptolemus,  the  son  of 
Achilles.  The  Lacedemonians,  the  Cretans,  and  other  nations, 
also  had  their  war-dances:  of  these, — which  were  called,  by  the 
Spartans,  the  Pyrrhic  dances, — of  the  dance  of  the  Bacchantes, 
and  that  of  the  Furies,  Mr.  Maurice,  in  his  Indian  Antiquities, 
gives  the  following  animated  description : — 

"  The  Greeks  carried  the  sacred,  as  well  as  the  social  dance, 
to  the  highest  point  of  attainable  perfection.  They  made  use  of 
the  varied  dance,  not  only  to  animate  devotion,  but  to  excite 
valour  and  terrify  guilt.  The  Pyrrhic  dance  of  the  Spartans, 
was  performed  by  youths,  armed  cap-a-pie,  who  brandished  aloft 
their  swords,  and  darted  their  javelins  to  the  sound  of  martial 
music.  The  dance  of  the  Bacchantes  was  more  furious,  accom- 
panied by  every  sort  of  mirthful  extravagance  and  furious  gesti- 
culation;— shrieks,  cries,  and  all  the  outward  signs  of  violent 
agitation.  But  the  most  terrible  of  all  dances,  was  that  of  the 
Eumenides,  or  Furies,  introduced  on  the  tragic  stage  of  Athens. 
The  minds  of  the  audience  were  agitated  with  dreadful  alternations 
of  passion,  rage,  anguish,  and  dismay:  the  valiant  veteran,  who 
had  a  thousand  times  braved  death  in  the  field  of  battle,  trembled 
while  it  was  performing;  a  great  part  of  the  sacred  multitude 
rushed  with  precipitation  from  the  theatre;  and  outcries  of  horror 
were  heard  on  every  side.  The  remaining  audience,  who  had 
courage  to  witness  the  exhibition,  appalled  at  the  scenes  which 
were  acting,  imagined  they  saw  in  earnest  those  terrific  deities,  the 
ministers  of  eternal  justice,  armed  with  die  vengeance  of  heaven, 
and  commissioned  to  pursue  and  punish  crimes  upon  earth." 

The  ancient  Romans  undoubtedly  performed  dances  at  their 
religious  ceremonies,  in  the  earliest  ages.  Numa  Pompilius,  in 
honour  of  Mars»  ordained  twelve  dancing  priests,  called  Salii 


402  DANCING. 

which  number  was  doubled  by  Tullus  Hostilius,  in  the  war  against 
Fidenae,  a  town  of  the  Sabines,  so  that  the  whole  college  con- 
tained twenty-four  priests;  who,  habited  in  parti-coloured  coats, 
with  swords  by  their  sides  and  javelins  in  their  hands,  occasionally 
danced  about  the  city.  A  sort  of  dance,  in  some  respects  resembling 
the  old  English  Morice  Dance,  was  practised  by  the  Romans:  it 
was  called  Saltatio  Mimicorum ;  the  dancers  wore  silk  corslets  and 
gilt  morions ;  they  had  bells  affixed  to  their  legs,  and  swords  and 
bucklers  in  their  hands.  The  young  men,  also,  indulged  in  the 
recreation  of  dancing:  they  had  chiefs,  or  captains,  called  Principes 
Juventutis,  chosen  from  among  the  most  noble  families  in  Rome. 

In  the  time  of  the  republic,  a  species  of  dance,  combined  with 
gesticulation,  bordering  in  some  degree  upon  the  modern  panto- 
mime, was  exercised  by  ^Esop  and  the  celebrated  Roscius :  with 
the  latter,  the  stately  Cicero  condescended  to  hold  a  friendly  contest, 
in  which  the  orator  endeavoured  to  express,  verbally,  and  with  a 
suitable  spirit,  more  than  Roscius  could  represent  by  gesture ;  but 
the  latter  bore  away  the  palm.  In  a  subsequent  age,  that  of 
Augustus,  the  merit  of  ./Esop  and  Roscius  was  forgotten  in  the 
more  splendid  displays  of  Plyades  and  Bathyllus.  Plyades  repre- 
sented grave,  tender,  and  pathetic  subjects ;  and  Bathyllus,  such  as 
were  cheerful,  gay,  and  jocose.  But  at  length  each  began  to  feel 
mortified  by  the  applause  acquired  by  the  other ;  and  separating 
in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  they  opened  different  theatres,  and  found 
scholars  and  admirers  in  their  respective  walks  of  the  art.  The 
public  took  different  sides,  and  disputed  on  the  merits  of  the  two 
Mimes;  Rome  was  actually  divided  into  two  factions;  each  of 
which  felt  most  warmly  interested  in  the  cause  of  its  chief.  But 
this  excitement  and  admiration  were  not  produced,  it  must  be 
confessed,  by  mere  dancing :  their  performances  are  described  as 
having  been  so  expressively  touching,  or  so  pleasantly  agreeable, 
that  the  spectators  thought  they  heard  what  they  saw; — that  ges- 
tures alone  supplied  the  sweetness  of  voice,  the  charms  of  poetry, 
and  the  energy  of  discourse. 

Perhaps  in  the  earliest  ages,  but  certainly  in  after-times,  indi- 
viduals availed  themselves  of  the  benefits  which  the  practice  of 
dancing  confers  on  the  person  and  spirits.  We  find,  that  the 
guests  of  Scipio  Africanus  were  entertained  by  the  hero  with 
dancing ;  and  the  younger  Cato,  the  friend  of  Pompey,  a  man  re- 
markable for  gravity  and  austerity  of  manners,  when  above  sixty 
years  of  age,  practised  this  art,  which  he  had  learned  in  his 
younger  days,  as  a  graceful  accomplishment.  The  name  of  Marc 


DANCING.  403 

Antony  is  also  enrolled  among  the  votaries  of  this  art  at  Rome; 
for  it  is  recorded,  that  he  was  censured  for  taking  an  improper 
part  in  the  dances  performed  at  some  religious  ceremony.  That 
dancing  was  practised  at  marriages,  we  know,  from  the  fact,  that 
in  the  days  of  Tiberius,  a  decree  was  not  only  made  by  the  senate 
against  it,  but  the  dancers  by  profession  were  actually  banished 
from  Rome. 

In  the  time  of  Nero,  a  dancer  represented  the  labours  of  Her- 
cules with  such  admirable  truth  and  expression,  that  a  king  of 
Pontus,  to  whom  such  an  exhibition  was  perfectly  novel,  followed 
die  action  of  the  artist  so  closely,  as  to  comprehend,  with  facility, 
every  circumstance  intended  to  be  represented;  and,  impressed 
with  admiration  at  such  a  display  of  talent,  he  entreated  of  the 
emperor  to  be  allowed  to  take  the  dancer  home  with  him,  as  he 
had  barbarous  neighbours,  whose  language  none  of  his  subjects 
understood,  and  who  had  never  been  able  to  learn  his  own;  and 
he  thought,  by  gesticulation  and  dancing,  such  as  he  had  seen 
exhibited  by  the  performer  in  question,  that  his  wishes  and  ideas 
might  be  conveyed  to  them  with  certainty. 

From  what  we  have  seen  of  the  estimation  in  which  the  art 
was  held  among  the  Romans,  we  think  we  are  justified  in  con- 
cluding, that  it  had  made  considerable  progress  towards  the  end 
of  the  republic,  and  was  very  materially  perfected  under  the  era 
of  the  emperors.  We  here  speak  of  the  art  as  coupled  with  that 
of  pantomime,  which,  among  the  ancients,  was  understood  to 
mean  the  imitation  of  all  kinds  of  actions  and  characters,  without 
speaking.  The  pantomimes  thus  performed,  made  a  part  of  all 
their  theatrical  entertainments;  and  the  chief  employment  of  the 
Mimes  was  to  express,  by  gestures,  whatever  incidents  were  sung 
by  the  chorus,  from  a  place  adjoining  the  stage,  to  the  people. 

As,  among  the  ancients,  dancing  constituted  one  of  the  princi- 
pal ceremonies  in  their  religious  festivals,  it  could  not  be  suddenly 
abolished,  on  similar  occasions,  in  those  nations  which  were  con- 
verted, at  an  early  period,  to  Christianity.  According  to  Menes- 
trier  and  Scaliger,  die  solemn  dances  of  the  Romans  and  Hebrews 
were  performed  by  the  dignitaries  of  the  church,  in  the  time  of 
Constantino.  The  latter  audior  asserts,  that  the  early  bishops 
were  caUed  Praesulus,  because  they  commenced  the  dance  in  solemn 
festivals.  The  choir,  or  place  where  the  canons,  &c.  in  our  cathe- 
drals are  placed,  is  clearly  derived  from  a  Greek  word,  signifying 
a  company  of  dancers.  In  the  twelfth  century,  Odo,  Bishop  of 
Paris,  issued  an  express  prohibition  of  dancing  in  any  religious 
34* 


404  DANCING. 

ceremonies ;  but  Menestrier  informs  us,  in  his  work  on  Ballets, 
published  near  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  that  he  had 
seen  the  choristers  and  canons,  on  a  Whitsunday,  dance  while 
they  chaunted  hymns  of  rejoicing.  Gallini  states,  that  not  long 
ago,  at  Limoges,  the  people  used  to  dance  the  round  in  the  choir 
of  the  church,  which  is  under  the  invocation  of  their  guardian 
saint;  and  at  the  end  of  each  psalm,  instead  of  the  Gloria  Patri, 
they  sung  as  follows: — "St.  Marcel,  pray  for  us,  and  we  will 
dance  in  honour  of  you."  In  Spain,  up  to  a  very  late  period,  if 
the  custom  do  not  even  still  exist,  dancing  was  practised  in  the 
churches,  on  great  festivals ;  and  in  a  distant  part  of  Wales,  it  is 
related,  that  within  the  memory  of  the  present  generation,  the 
people  were  played  out  of  church  on  Sunday,  with  a  fiddle,  and 
joined  in  the  jocund  dance  in  the  church-yard,  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  sermon. 

In  France,  at  so  early  a  period  as  the  year  1581,  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  the  Third,  a  splendid  ballet  was  produced,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  court ;  and  the  king  having  united  his  favourite, 
Le  Due  de  Joyeuse,  to  the  queen's  sister,  almost  ruined  the  nation, 
it  is  said,  in  similar  entertainments  of  the  most  costly  description. 
The  queen,  also,  gave  a  superb  fe"te,  at  the  Louvre,  in  honour  of 
her  sister's  nuptials,  in  which  a  ballet  was  exhibited,  called  Ceres 
and  her  Nymphs;  the  music  of  which  was  afterwards  published 
by  the  celebrated  Piedmontese  performer  on  the  violin,  Balthazar 
de  Beaujoyeux,  then  valet-de-chambre  to  the  king.  From  that 
time,  which  may  be  considered  the  age  of  its  revival  in  Europe, 
dancing  made  a  gradual  progress  towards  its  present  state  of  re- 
finement in  France  and  the  neighbouring  nations. 

A  very  ancient  holyday  amusement  of  the  people  of  England, 
was  a  species  of  ballet,  called  Mumming;  which  name  was  derived 
from  the  old  vulgar  phrase,  "  Mum!"  signifying  "  be  silent."  The 
performers  in  this  pastime,  represented  by  gestures,  accompanied 
with  dancing,  comic  incidents  and  droll  adventures ;  and,  in  these 
rustic  exhibitions,  Mr.  Dodsley  is  of  opinion,  that  comedy,  in 
England,  had  its  rise. 

Among  the  recreations  of  the  English  court,  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  the  Eighth,  dancing  is  frequently  mentioned.  The 
king  himself  was,  doubtless,  an  admirer  of  this  art.  Lloyd  says 
that  "Sir  W.  Molyneux  got  in  with  King  Henry  the  Eighth,  by  a 
discourse  out  of  Aquinas  in  the  morning,  and  a  dance  at  night." 
In  die  age  of  Elizabeth,  dancing  seems  to  have  been  held  in  con- 
siderable esteem :  the  queen  took  great  pleasure  in  it ;  and  many 


DANCING.  405 

of  her  favourites  were  indebted  as  much  to  their  elegant  accom- 
plishments, as  to  their  valour  or  wisdom,  for  the  sunshine  of  her 
favour.  In  that  reign,  to  use  the  words  of  Gray, 

Full  oft  within  the  spacious  walls, 

When  he  had  fifty  winters  o'er  him, 
My  grave  Lord  Keeper  led  the  brawls  ; 

The  seals  and  maces  danc'd  before  him. 

From  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  until  after  the  restoration  of 
Charles  the  Second,  the  turbulence  of  the  times,  and  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  age,  prevented  this  art,  which  flourishes  only  in 
"the  bowers  of  peace  and  joy,"  from  making  much  progress; 
but  in  the  days  of  the  merry  monarch  it  began  to  revive,  and 
advanced,  more  or  less,  in  all  the  succeeding  reigns.  The  cele- 
brated Beau  Nash,  who  was,  for  a  long  time,  M.  C.  at  Bath,  may 
be  considered  the  founder  of  modern  ball-room  dancing;  which, 
however,  has  been  divested  of  much  of  its  cold  formality,  and  im- 
proved, in  various  other  respects,  since  the  time  of  that  singular 
person.  It  is,  nevertheless,  a  matter  of  regret,  that  the  graceful 
and  stately  Minuet  has  been  entirely  abandoned  in  favour  of  the 
more  recently-invented  dances. 

The  French  Country  Dances,  or  Contre-Danses  (from  the  parties 
being  placed  opposite  to  each  other,)  since  called  Quadrilles  (from 
their  having  four  sides,)  which  approximate  nearly  to  the  Cotillon, 
were  first  introduced  to  France  about  the  middle  of  Lewis  the 
Fifteenth's  reign.  Previously  to  this  period,  the  dances  most  in 
vogue  were  La  Perigourdine,  La  Matelotte,  La  Pavane,  Les  For- 
lanes,  Minuets,  &c.  Quadrilles,  when  first  introduced,  were  danced 
by  four  persons  only :  four  more  were  soon  added,  and  thus  the  com- 
plete square  was  formed;  but  the  figures  were  materially  different 
from  those  of  the  present  period.  The  gentlemen  advanced  with 
die  opposite  ladies,  menaced  each  other  with  the  fore-finger, 
and  retired  clapping  their  hands  three  times;  they  then  turned 
hands  of  four,  turned  their  own  partners,  and  grand  rond  of  all 
concluded  the  figure.  The  Vauxhall  d'Hiver  was,  at  that  time, 
die  most  fashionable  place  of  resort:  the  pupils  of  the  Royal 
Academy  were  engaged  to  execute  new  dances;  a  full  and 
effective  band  performed  the  most  fashionable  airs,  and  new  figures 
were  at  length  introduced  and  announced  as  a  source  of  attraction; 
but  this  place  was  soon  pulled  down,  and  rebuilt  on  the  ground 
now  occupied  by  the  Theatre  du  Vaudeville.  The  establishment 
failed,  and  the  proprietor  became  a  bankrupt.  A  short  time  after, 


406  DANCING. 

it  was  re-opened  by  another  speculator;  but  on  such  a  scale,  as 
merely  to  attraci  the  working  classes  of  the  community.  The 
band  was  now  composed  of  a  set  of  miserable  scrapers,  who  played 
in  unison,  and  continually  in  the  key  of  G  sharp;  amid  the  sounds 
which  emanated  from  their  instruments,  the  jangling  of  a  tambourin 
and  the  shrill  notes  of  a  fife  were  occasionally  heard.  Thus  did 
things  continue  until  the  French  revolution;  when,  about  the 
time  the  Executive  Directory  was  formed,  the  splendid  apartments 
of  the  Hotel  de  Richelieu  were  opened  for  the  reception  of  the 
higher  classes,  who  had  then  but  few  opportunities  of  meeting  to 
"trip  it  on  the  light  fantastic  toe."  Monsieur  Hullin,  then  of  the 
Opera,  was  selected  to  form  a  band  of  twenty-four  musicians, 
from  among  those  of  the  highest  talent  in  the  various  theatres: 
he  found  no  difficulty  in  this,  as  they  were  paid  in  paper-money, 
then  of  little  or  no  value;  whereas,  the  administrators  of  the 
Richelieu  establishment  paid  in  specie.  The  tunes  were  com- 
posed in  different  keys,  with  full  orchestral  accompaniments,  by 
Monsieur  Hullin ;  and  the  contrast  thus  produced  to  the  abomi- 
nable style  which  had  so  long  existed,  commenced  a  new  era  in 
dancing:  the  old  figures  were  abolished,  and  stage-steps  were 
adopted; — Pas  de  Zephyrs,  Pas  de  Bourres,  Ballotes,  Jetes  Battus, 
&c.  were  among  the  most  popular.  Minuets  and  Forlanes  were 
still  continued;  but  Monsieur  Vestris  displaced  the  latter  by 
the  Gavotte,  which  he  taught  to  Monsieur  Trenis  and  Madame 
de  Choiseul,  who  first  danced  it  at  a  fete  given  by  a  lady  of  ce- 
lebrity, at  the  Hotel  de  Valentinois,  Rue  St.  Lazar,  on  the  16th 
of  August,  1797:  at  this  fete,  Monsieur  Hullin  introduced  an 
entirely  new  set  of  figures  of  his  own  composition.  These  elicited 
general  approbation:  they  were  danced  at  all  parties,  and  still 
retain  pre-eminence.  The  names  of  Pantalon,  L'Ete,  La  Poule, 
La  Trenis,  &c.  which  were  given  to  the  tunes,  have  been  applied 
to  the  figures.  The  figure  of  La  Trenis,  was  introduced  by 
Monsieur  Trenis's  desire,  it  being  part  of  the  figure  from  a  Gavotte, 
danced  in  the  then  favourite  ballet  of  Nina. 

To  the  French  we  are  indebted  for  rather  an  ingenious,  but  in 
the  opinion  of  many  professional  dancers,  an  useless  invention, 
by  which  it  was  proposed,  that  as  the  steps  in  dancing  are  not  very 
numerous,  although  they  may  be  infinitely  combined,  that  cha- 
racters might  be  made  use  of  to  express  the  various  steps  and 
figures  of  a  dance,  in  the  same  manner  as  words  and  sentences 
are  expressed  by  letters ;  or  what  is  more  closely  analogous,  as 
the  musical  characters  are  employed,  to  represent  to  the  eye  the 


DANCING. 


407 


sounds  of  an  air.  The  well-known  Monsieur  Beauchamp,  and 
a  French  dancing-master,  each  laid  claim  to  be  the  original  in- 
ventor of  this  art;  and  the  consequence  was  a  law-suit,  in  which, 
however,  judgment  was  pronounced  in  favour  of  the  former.  The 
art  has  been  introduced  to  this  country,  but  without  success.  An 
English  dancing-master  has  also,  we  believe,  with  considerable 
labour  and  ingenuity,  devised  a  plan  somewhat  similar  to  that  of 
the  French  author:  diagrams  being  proposed  to  represent  the 
figures,  or  steps,  instead  of  characters. 

There  are  a  variety  of  dances  to  which  the  term  National  may, 
with  some  propriety,  be  applied.  Among  the  most  celebrated  of 
these  are, — the  Italian  Tarantula,  the  German  Waltz,  and  the 
Spanish  Bolero.  To  dwell  on  their  peculiarities  would,  however, 
as  it  appears  to  us,  be  useless:  the  first  is  rarely  exhibited,  even 
on  the  stage:  the  second,  although  it  still  retains  much  of  its 
original  character,  has,  in  this  country,  been  modified  into  the 
Waltz  Country  Dance,  and  all  the  objections  which  it  encountered, 
on  its  first  introduction,  seem  to  have  been  gradually  overcome, 
since  it  assumed  its  present  popular  form;  and  the  graceful 
Bolero  is  restricted  to  the  theatre  only,  being  never  introduced 
to  the  English  ball-room. 


408  PANCINC;. 


1'UACTICAL  OnsKK\ 'ATIONS  AND  EXERCISES. 

However  impossible  it  may  be  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
dancing  unassisteil  by  a  master,  we  feel  satisfied,  that  without  de- 
preciating the  talent  or  attention  of  those  by  whom  they  have  been 
instructed  in  the  art,  many  of  our  readers  may  derive  mueh  benefit 
from  an  attentive  perusal  of  the  following  observations.  It  would 
be  folly  for  us  to  attempt  teaching  steps,  and  useless  to  oiler  a 
series  of  figures;  our  attention  will  be  mueh  more  profitably 
directed,  so  far  as  regards  the  reader,  to  the  carriage  and  deport- 
ment of  the  person,  ami  in  suggesting  such  simple  exerc 
will  tend  to  improve  those  who  are  deficient,  and  to  confirm  those 
who  are  correct. 

OF    THE    ARMS    AND    HANDS. 

The  proper  carriage  of  the  arms  is  certainly  one  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  in  dancing;  it  therefore  demands  the  utmost  attention 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  Of  all  the  movements  made  in  dancing, 
the  opposition,  or  contrast,  of  the  arms  with  the  feet  is  the  most 
natural  to  us:  to  this,  however,  but  little  attention  is  in  general 
paid.  If  any  person  be  observed,  when  in  the  act  of  walking,  it 
will  be  found,  tliat  when  the  right  foot  is  put  forward,  the  left  arm 
follows  anil  vice  versa:  this  is  at  once  natural  and  graceful;  and 
a  similar  rule  should,  in  all  cases,  be  followed  in  dancing.  As 
much  depends  on  placing  the  arms  properly,  and  on  moving  them 
with  grace,  as  in  the  execution  of  steps, — for  dancing  consists  not 
in  the  motion  of  the  feet  alone, — it  requires  the  appropriate  accom- 
paniment of  the  arms  and  body:  without  which,  the  art  degene- 
rates into  a  mere  fantastic  mode  of  stepping.  The  arms  should 
be  kept  in  an  easy  semi-oval  position,  so  that  the  bend  of  the 
elbows  be  scarcely  perceptible;  otherwise,  they  would  present 
right  angles,  which  would  so  oflend  the  eye,  as  to  destroy  all 
appearance  of  ease  or  elegance.  Care  must  be  taken,  neither  to 
raise  the  shoulders  nor  to  spread  the  arms  too  far  out.  The  proper 
situation  of  the  arms,  in  dancing,  is  a  little  in  front  of  the  body: 
they  should  advance  or  recede  in  a  natural  series  of  oppositions 
to  the  direction  of  the  feet  in  the  execution  of  the  various  steps; 
their  movements,  in  performing  these  contrasts,  must  not  bo 
sudden  or  exaggerated,  but  so  easy  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible. 


DANCING. 


409 


The  dress  should  be  held  between  the  fore-finger  and  thumb  of 
each  hand :  it  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  overcome  both  tremor 
and  rigidity  of  the  fingers,  which  should  be  gracefully  grouped,  so 
that  the  palm  be  partially  seen  in  front.  In  dancing  Quadrilles, 
when  the  lady  advances  with  her  partner,  and  in  all  the  figures  where 
the  hands  join,  the  arms  should  be  kept  of  such  a  moderate  height 
as  is  consistent  with  grace  (Fig.  1.)  It  is  also  necessary  that  the 

arms  should  be  properly 
supported,  and  not  suf- 
fered to  weigh  or  drag 
upon  those  of  the  per- 
sons with  whom  it  may 
be  proper  to  join  hands 
in  the  course  of  the 
dance.  To  say  nothing 
of  the  positive  impro- 
priety of  falling  into  such 
an  error,  the  mere  act, 
during  its  continuation, 
is  quite  destructive  to 
grace,  which  cannot  exist 
where  ease  is  not  appa- 
rent. Elegance,  without 
affectation,  may  be  shown  in  presenting  the  hand  to  a  partner: 
rustic  abruptness,  and  childish  timidity,  are  equally  to  be  avoided; 
a  modest  confidence  is  the  golden  mean  to  be  observed  in  this,  as 
2  in  every  other  department  of  ball-room 

dancing.  To  grasp  the  hand  of  a  person 
with  whom  it  is  necessary  to  join  hands, 
— to  detain  it  when  it  should  be  relin- 
quished,— are  faults  which,  we  trust,  our 
reader's  good  sense  would  prevent  her 
from  committing,  even  when  dancing  with 
one  of  her  own  sex ;  but  even  these  of- 
fences, in  the  consideration  of  propriety 
and  taste,  are  not  more  grave  than  that 
of  display.  However  excellently  a  young 
lady  may  dance,  and  whatever  powers  of 
brilliant  execution  she  may  possess,  she 
should  never  forget  that  she  is  in  a  ball- 
room, and  not  on  a  stage:  studied  attitude  in  presenting  the  hand 
(Fig.  2)  is  reprehensible,  as  being  productive  of  too  much  effect, 


410  DANCING. 

and  as  showing  an  inclination  for  display.  Correct  execution  of 
die  figure  and  steps,  and  unobtrusive  grace  of  deportment,  should 
be  the  zenith  of  a  young  lady's  ambition;  as  Shakspeare  finely 
expresses  the  perfection  of  dancing,  she  should  move  like  a  wave 
of  the  sea;  it  being,  of  course,  understood,  when  the  elements 
are  in  their  most  gentle  motion.  When  the  hand  is  not  to  be 
presented  to  another,  the  arm  should  depend  from  the  shoulder 
in  an  easy  oval  shape,  as  previously  directed. 

OF    THE    FEET,    &C. 

The  principal  study,  with  regard  to  the  feet,  in  dancing,  consists 
in  acquiring  a  power  of  turning  them  properly  outward ;  in  bend- 
ing the  instep,  without  effort,  immediately  the  foot  quits  the 
ground ;  and  in  alternately  practising  with  each  foot,  so  that  both 
may  attain  an  equal  degree  of  execution;  it  being  decidedly  in- 
elegant and  awkward  for  one  foot  to  be  constantly  active  and 
correct  in  its  movements,  while  the  other  remains  comparatively 
unemployed. 

To  dance  with  the  instep  concave,  instead  of  convex,  and  the 
toes  turned  upwards,  instead  of  the  contrary,  is  termed  dancing 
flat-footed,  and  is  ungraceful  to  the  last  degree.  The  toes  should  be 
well  pointed  downward,  and  the  knees  outward,  to  correspond  with 

them;  but  it  is  impossible  to 
produce  an  union  of  grace  in 
these  particulars,  unless  the 
action  of  the  instep  and  the 
knee  be  supported  and  accom- 
panied by  that  of  the  hip.  In 
the  ball-room,  all  the  steps 
should  be  performed  in  an  easy, 
:  graceful  manner :  no  noise  of 

stamping  should' on  any  ac~ 

count  be  made;  the  steps  should 
be  performed  with  minute  neat- 
ness, and  in  as  small  a  compass 
as  possible;  the  feet  should 
never  be  violently  tossed  about, 

or  lifted  high  from  the  ground:  the  young  lady  should  rather 
seem  to  glide,  with  easy  elegance,  than  strive  to  astonish  by  agility : 
or,  by  violent  action,  make  it  appear,  that,  to  her,  dancing  is  a 
boisterous  and  difficult  exercise.  (Fig.  3,  illustration  of  the  Waltz.) 


DANCING.  411 

But  while  we  thus  caution  our  reader  against  adopting  those 
styles, — one  of  which  may  be  deemed  operatic,  and  better  adapted 
to  a  ballet  than  a  Quadrille,  and  the  other,  rustic,  and  more  appli- 
cable to  the  village-green  than  the  ball-room, — it  is  necessary  for 
us  to  warn  her  against  falling  into  the  opposite  error  of  listless- 
ness  and  inaccuracy;  with  these,  elegance  can  never  be  obtained: 
the  former  makes  her  appear  to  be  condescending  to  join  in  an 
amusement  she  despises,  and  the  latter  induces  a  supposition  in 
the  minds  of  those  who  may  not  be  supposed  to  know  aught  to 
the  contrary,  that  she  is  either  unusually  dull,  or  has  never  had 
an  opportunity  of  obtaining  the  benefit  of  instruction  from  a  proper 
master. 

OF    THE    BUST. 

It  has  been  very  judiciously  remarked,  by  a  cotemporary  writer 
on  this  subject,  that  the  pupils  of  a  great  artiste  will  display  his 
merit  in  the  graceful  movement  of  the  figure,  as  much  as  in  the  neat 
execution  of  the  steps. 

The  body  should  never  be  suffered  to  sink  into  idle  attitudes ; 
as  rounding  the  back,  forcing  the  shoulders  up  to  the  ears,  pro- 
jecting the  back  part  of  the  waist,  or  stooping  forward:  such  care- 
less habits,  if  long  permitted,  eventually  produce  local  deformities. 
Affectation  of  primness  is  as  much  to  be  avoided  as  indolence: 
the  admirable  union  of  ease  and  grace,  which  constitutes  elegance 
of  deportment,  can  never  be  obtained  by  those  who  indulge  in 
either  of  these  faults.  The  body  should  always  be  kept  in  an  easy 
and  unaffected  erect  position  except  in  the  execution  of  certain 
steps  which  require  the  bust  to  be  thrown  a  little  forward :  but, 
even  in  these  cases,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  body  do  not 
lose  its  perfect  balance.  The  chest  should  be  advanced,  the  waist 
retiring,  and  the  shoulders  depressed:  by  these  means,  the  bust 
will  be  naturally  and  elegantly  developed;  and  the  shoulders,  by 
being  brought  to  range  evenly  with  the  back,  appear  of  their 
proper  breadth,  and  form  a  graceful  contrast  to  the  waist. 

OF    THE     HEAD. 

The  head  should  be  kept  centrally  between  the  shoulders  by 
the  erectness  of  the  neck:  the  face  may,  of  course,  be  occasionally 
turned  to  the  right  or  left,  not  merely  for  convenience,  or  to  avoid 
an  appearance  of  constraint,  but  because  the  opposition  which 
may  be  produced  by  a  judicious  change  of  the  direction  in  which 
35 


412  DANCING. 

the  countenance  is  turned,  to  the  posture  of  the  body  or  limbs, 
materially  enhances  the  grace  of  the  whole  figure.  The  turn  of 
the  head  should  be  so  managed  as  to  perfect  the  real  and  apparent 
balance  of  the  figure.  If  the  greatest  weight  be  thrown  on  one 
side,  the  head  may,  generally  speaking,  be  very  advantageously 
turned,  in  a  trifling  degree,  in  an  opposite  direction.  The  reader 
may  convince  herself  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived  by  a  graceful 
inclination  of  the  countenance,  so  as  to  produce  an  easy  opposition, 
by  performing  the  positions  before  a  glass,  and  turning  her  face 
alternately  to  each  side,  or  keeping  it  in  the  same  direction,  and 
practising,  in  turns,  with  each  foot.  The  head  should  be  thrown 
considerably  backward,  and  the  forehead  brought  to  project  in  a 
slight  degree,  by  drawing  the  chin  towards  the  neck.  The  coun- 
tenance, during  a  dance,  should  be  illumined  by  a  smile :  it  is 
perfectly  absurd  for  a  young  lady  to  exhibit  a  melancholy  aspect 
amid  the  gaieties  of  a  ball-room,  and  painful  to  see  her  assume 
an  aspect  of  care,  when  going  through  a  Quadrille ;  as  it  induces 
the  spectators  to  imagine,  that  the  performance  of  the  steps  or 
figure,  so  entirely  engross  her  faculties,  that  she  is  incapable  of 
partaking  in  the  pleasures  of  the  dance. 


POSITIONS,  BATTEMENS,  AND   OTHER  EXERCISES. 

The  positions  constitute  the  alphabet  of  dancing,  and,  although 
generally  treated  lightly  of  by  the  majority  of  dancing-masters,  are 
of  the  highest  importance.  They  form  the  basis  of  every  step; 
and  if  each  of  them  be  thoroughly  understood,  and  an  accurate 
mode  of  performing  it  acquired,  the  subsequent  progress  of  the 
pupil  will  be  materially  facilitated. 

The  Battemens,  &c.  in  the  positions,  form  a  series  of  very 
graceful  domestic  morning  exercises,  and  we  strongly  recommend 
their  frequent  practice,  even  by  those  who  have  acquired  some 
proficiency  in  the  art;  as  they  tend  to  correct  many  errors  which 
are  acquired  by  carelessness,  during  or  after  tuition,  as  well  as  to 
impart  brilliancy  and  correctness  of  execution, — to  facilitate  the 
bending  of  the  ankle, — to  improve  the  balance,  the  carriage  of  the 
arms,  and  the  developement  of  the  bust, — and  to  produce  that 
general  harmony  of  motion  in  which  the  chief  beauty  of  dancing 
and  general  elegance  of  deportment  consist. 

The  first  position  is  formed  by  placing  the  two  heels  together 
and  throwing  the  toes  back,  so  that  the  feet  form  a  parallel  line. 


DANCING. 


413 


The  body  should  be  kept  perfectly  erect:  the  shoulders  should 
be  thrown  back,  and  the  waist  advanced;  the  arms  rounded,  and 
the  fore-finger  and  thumb  occupied  in  holding  out  the  dress;  the 
other  fingers  being  gracefully  grouped  (Fig.  4.)  During  the  first 
attempts,  the  toes  should  not  be  more  turned  back  than  will  admit 
of  the  body  maintaining  its  proper  balance;  they  must  be  brought 
to  assume  the  correct  position  by  degrees,  until  the  pupil  can  place 
the  feet,  heel  to  heel,  in  a  parallel  line  with  each  other,  without 
affecting  the  steadiness  of  the  body  or  arms. 


The  second  position  is  formed  by  moving  the  right  foot  from 
the  first  position,  sideways,  to  about  the  distance  of  its  own  length 
from  the  heel  of  the  left  (Fig.  5.)  When  the  foot  is  thus  placed, 
the  heel  must  be  raised  so  that  the  toes  alone  rest  on  the  ground ; 
the  instep  being  bent  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  foot  turned  so 
as  to  retain  its  primitive  direction  outward:  as  in  the  case  of  the 
first  position,  the  foot  should  be  brought  to  perform  the  action  of 
the  second,  in  a  perfectly  correct  manner,  by  degrees;  and  the 
toes  should  be  gradually  thrown  back  as  far  as  the  pupil's  power 
to  preserve  her  balance  will  permit. 

The  third  position  is  formed  by  drawing  the  right  foot  from 
the  second  position,  to  about  the  middle  of  the  front  of  the  left : 
the  feet  are  to  be  kept  close  to  each  other  (Fig.  6.)  In  drawing 
the  right  foot  into  this  position,  the  heel  must  be  put  to  the  ground 
as  it  approaches  the  left,  and  kept  forward  during  its  progress,  so 
that  the  toe  may  retain  its  proper  direction  outward. 

The  fourth  position  is  formed  by  moving  the  foot  about  its  own 
length  forward  from  the  third  position,  directing  the  heel  outward, 


414 


DANCING. 


and  turning  back  the  toe  during  the  progress  of  die  foot  (Fig.  7:) 
it  may  also  be  slightly  raised,  and  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be 
exactly  opposite  to  the  centre  of  the  left  foot,  which,  in  this  as  well 
as  in  all  the  preceding  positions,  and  also  in  the  next,  is  to  retain 
its  primitive  situation. 

7  8 


The  fifth  position  is  formed  by  drawing  the  right  foot  back  from 
the  fourth  position,  so  that  the  heel  is  brought  close  to  the  toes  of 
the  left  foot,  the  feet  being  completely  crossed  (Fig.  8.)  The 
right  heel,  in  this  position,  is  gradually  brought  to  the  ground 
as  it  approaches  the  left  foot,  as  in  drawing  the  left  foot  from 
the  second  to  the  third. 

Bending  the  knees  outward  and  rather  backward,  without 
raising  the  heels,  and  still  keeping  the  body  perfectly  erect,  is  an 
exercise  which  should  be  performed  in  all  the  positions :  it  will 
impart  flexibility  to  the  instep,  and  tend  to  improve  the  balance. 
The  pupil  in  her  early  essays  in  this  exercise,  should  support 
herself,  alternately  with  each  hand,  against  some  fixed  object.  She 
must  by  no  means  attempt  to  raise  herself  by  swinging  one  arm 
in  the  air :  it  should  rather  be  occupied  in  holding  out  the  dress, 
in  the  manner  previously  directed.  The  knees  should  be  only 
slightly  bent  at  first;  and  the  difficulties  of  the  exercise  maybe 
overcome  by  degrees,  until  she  can  perform  it  perfectly  well  with- 
out any  support,  or  discomposing  the  proper  position  of  her  body 
and  arms, 

Battemens  en  avant  are  performed  by  raising  the  right  leg  from 
the  third  position  into  the  fourth  in  front,  as  high  as  the  knee, 
with  a  quick  jerk ;  keeping  the  knee  straight  and  the  toes  well 


DANCING. 


415 


pointed, — the  heel  maintaining  the  same  position  as  if  on  the 
ground, — and  letting  the  leg  fall  back  into  the  fifth  position  in  front. 
The  left  leg,  during  this  exercise,  remains  steady,  the  knee  straight, 
with  the  whole  weight  of  the  body  upon  it,  so  that  the  right  leg 
may  act  with  perfect  ease  and  freedom  (Fig.  10.) 

9  10 


Battemens  en  arriere  (Fig.  9)  are  performed  by  throwing  the 
right  foot  up  behind  in  the  fourth  position,  with  the  same  rules 
as  for  the  Battemens  en  avant:  great  attention  must  be  paid  to 
prevent  the  body  inclining  forward  in  this  portion  of  the  exercises; 
it  should  be  kept  perfectly  straight,  but  without  any  appearance 
of  stiffness.  The  Battemens  en  avant 
and  en  arriere,  are  performed,  among 
professional  dancers,  by  raising  the 
foot  much  higher ;  but  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  do  so  as  a  domestic  exercise  for 
ball-room  dancing. 

Battemens  on  the  second  position, 
may  be  made  in  the  following  man- 
ner:— The  pupil  must  support  herself 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  practice 
of  bending,  before  described;  she 
should  then  pass  the  foot  into  the 
second  position, — the  knee  being  kept 
perfectly  straight, — draw  it  back  into 
the  fifth  position  before;  pass  it  again  into  the  second  position, 
and  draw  it  into  the  fifth  behind;  and  so  on,  until  by  repetition 
of  the  exercise,  she  can  perform  these  Battemens  with  rapidity, 
ease,  and  correctness  (Fig.  11.) 

35* 


416 


DANCING. 


When  the  bends  in  the  various  positions  have  been  practised 
sometime,  the  pupil  should  endeavour,  after  each  bend,  to  raise 
herself  on  the  toes  (see  fig.  12,)  being  careful  that  the  knees  are 
kept  straight,  and  that  the  feet  do  not  change  their  positions.  This 
is  an  excellent  practice,  as  it  imparts  to  the  feet  the  point  so  much 
admired,  and,  at  the  same  time,  considerably  increases  the  power 
of  the  instep  and  ankle. 

12  13 


Petits  Battemens  sur  le  coude-pied  (Fig.  13)  are  very  difficult 
of  execution:  they  are  practised  by  accomplished  dancers,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  ease  in  elevation,  and  what  is  termed  aplomb; 
they  also  impart,  in  certain  steps,  that  vivacity,  which  no  other 
practice  will  give:  we  here,  of  course,  allude  to  professional,  and 
not  private  dancing.  The  reader  may,  however,  attempt  them ; 
and  if  she  can  succeed  in  executing  them,  they  certainly  form  a 
graceful  and  beneficial  exercise.  They  are  first  performed  with 
one  foot  entirely  on  the  ground;  but  after  some  practice,  the  pupil 
lifts  the  heel  from  the  ground,  so  as  to  rest  entirely  on  the  toes, 
and  executes  the  Battemens  in  that  position  with  great  rapidity. 
If  the  knee  and  hip  be  free  from  stiffness,  the  difficulty  of  the 
exercise  is  partially  overcome ;  and  it  is,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
produce  an  ease  and  pliability  in  those  parts,  that  they  are  prin- 
cipally practised.  These  Battemens  consist  of  a  rapid  movement 
of  the  right  foot,  from  the  instep  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  leg,  by 
a  mere  movement  of  the  knee. 

Having  gone  through  the  positions  and  Battemens  with  the  right 
foot,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  do  them  with  the  left;  observing, 
at  the  same  time,  that  when  the  positions  are  practised  with  the 
right  foot,  the  left  must,  of  course,  in  its  turn,  remain  stationary, 


DANCING. 


417 


and  the  whole  of  the  weight  be  thrown  upon  it.  The  Battemens 
should  be  practised  until  the  pupil  can  make  them  with  some 
degree  of,  what  a  professional  dancer  would  call,  brilliance,  with 
either  foot,  unassisted  by  the  support  which  is  necessary  when  they 
are  commenced. 

Before  concluding  our  article,  we  deem  it  expedient  to  describe 
the  approved  mode  of  performing  the  Curtsey ;  and  as  our  aim  is 
to  improve  die  general  deportment  in  society,  as  well  as  in  dancing 
for  the  ball-room,  to  offer  a  few  observations  on  walking. 

14  15 


The  performance  of  the  curtsey  in  a  proper  manner,  proves  a 
matter  of  difficulty  to  some  young  ladies ;  but  it  will  be  found 
very  easy,  after  a  little  practice,  to  curtsey  with  grace,  if  proper 
directions  be  given  and  attended  to.  The  following  is  the  usual 
mode : — The  front  foot  is  first  brought  into  the  second  position ; 
the  other  is  then  drawn  into  the  third  behind,  and  passed  imme- 
diately into  the  fourth  behind, — the  whole  weight  of  the  body 
being  thrown  on  the  front  foot;  the  front  knee  is  then  bent,  die 
body  gently  sinks,  the  whole  weight  is  transferred  to  the  foot 
behind  while  rising,  and  the  front  foot  is  gradually  brought  into 
the  fourth  position.  The  arms  should  be  gracefully  bent,  and  the 
hands  occupied  in  lightly  holding  out  die  dress.  The  first  step 
in  walking,  after  the  curtsey,  is  made  with  the  foot  which  happens 
to  be  forward  al  its  completion.  The  perfect  curtsey  is  rarely 
performed  in  society,  as  the  general  salutation  is  between  a  curtsey 
and  a  bow  (Fig.  14.) 

The  manner  of  walking  well  is  an  object  which  all  young 
ladies  should  be  anxious  to  acquire ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  a  point 
too  much  neglected.  In  the  drawing-room,  the  ball-room,  or 


418 


DANCING. 


during  the  promenade,  an  elegant  deportment, — a  "  poetry  of 
motion," — is,  and  ever  will  be,  appreciated.  The  step  ought  not 
to  exceed  the  length  of  the  foot ;  the  leg  should  be  put  forward, 
without  stiffness,  in  about  the  fourth  position ;  but  without  any 
effort  to  turn  the  foot  out,  as  it  will  tend  to  throw  the  body  awry, 
and  give  the  person  an  appearance  of  being  a  professional  dancer, 
as  exemplified  in  fig.  15,  which  is  tolerably  correct  in  other  respects, 
except  in  the  position  of  the  feet.  The  head  should  be  kept  up 
and  the  chest  open:  the  body  will  then  attain  an  advantageous 
position,  and  that  steadiness  so  much  required  in  good  walking. 
The  arms  should  fall  in  their  natural  position,  and  all  their  move- 
ments and  oppositions  to  the  feet  be  easy  and  unconstrained. 
The  employment  of  soldiers  to  teach  young  ladies  how  to  walk, 
which,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  is  a  practice  adopted  by  many  parents 
and  heads  of  seminaries,  is  much  to  be  deprecated.  The  stiffness 
acquired  under  regimental  tuition,  is  adverse  to  all  the  principles 
of  grace,  and  annihilates  that  buoyant  lightness  which  is  so  con- 
ducive to  ease  and  elegance  in  the  young. 


ARCHERY. 


Oh,  bold  Robin  Hood 

Was  a  forester  good 
As  ever  drew  bow  in  the  merry  green  wood  ; 

And  what  eye  hath  e'er  seen 

Such  a  sweet  maiden-queen 
As  Marian,  the  pride  of  the  forester's  green? 

L  RCHERY  was  formerly  one  of  the  chief  pas- 
times, and  the  greatest  defence,  of  the  people 
of  England  against  their  enemies.  Many 
statutes  were  made  for  its  encouragement; 
and  even  after  the  bow  was  superseded  by 
H  other  arms  as  a  warlike  weapon,  the  people 
were  enjoined  by  parliament  not  only  to 
keep  bows  and  arrows,  but  also  to  practise 

shooting  at  the  target:  the  City  of  London  was  compelled  by  the 
legislature  to  erect  butts  for  this  purpose.  We  have  not  met  with 
any  well-authenticated  record  of  the  first  introduction  of  the  long- 
bow to  this  country;  but  there  is  sufficient  evidence  to  be  found 
in  the  works  of  the  old  historians,  to  show  that  it  was  adopted  as 
a  weapon  for  forest  and  field  in  very  early  times.  Richard  the 
First  was  killed  by  an  arrow,  in  the  year  1199.  In  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Third,  precepts  were  issued  to  the  sheriffs,  command- 
ing them  severally  to  provide  a  certain  number  of  bows  and  bundles 
of  arrows  for  the  then  intended  war  against  France ;  and  in  the 


420  ARCHERY. 

battle  of  Cressy,  which  was  fought  shortly  after,  the  English  had 
a  body  of  two  thousand  archers,  to  whose  exertions  the  victory 
has,  by  some  writers,  been  mainly  attributed.  The  same  king 
also  directed  the  sheriffs  of  shires  to  see  that  the  people  exercised 
themselves  with  bows  and  arrows,  instead  of  such  other  unpro- 
fitable games  as  foot-ball,  hand-ball,  &c.  In  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Fourth,  every  Englishman  was  compelled  to  keep  a  bow; 
and  butts  were  ordered  to  be  set  up  in  every  township,  at  which 
the  people  were  directed  to  shoot,  on  feast-days,  under  a  certain 
penalty.  Sir  Christopher  Morris,  Master  of  the  Ordnance  to  Henry 
the  Eighth,  by  command  of  the  king,  established  a  society  of 
archers,  for  the  express  purpose  of  encouraging  the  use  of  the  bow; 
and  in  Edward  the  Sixth's  time,  a  sermon  was  preached  before 
the  king  in  favour  of  the  sport,  as  an  admirable  exercise,  by  the 
famous  Bishop  Latimer.  That  monarch  also  records  in  his  journal, 
that  a  hundred  archers  of  his  guard  shot  before  him  at  an  inch 
board  of  well-seasoned  timber,  which  was  completely  pierced 
through  with  the  heads  of  some  of  the  arrows.  An  act  of  Henry 
the  Eighth,  by  which  every  man  was  compelled  to  have  a  bow 
and  three  arrows,  not  being  generally  complied  with,  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  bowyers  petitioned  that  queen  for  authority 
to  put  them  in  force ;  during  her  reign,  also,  the  price  of  bows 
was  expressly  regulated  by  statute.  The  London  Archers  (for 
whose  use  several  gardens  had  been  levelled,  in  1498)  petitioned 
James  the  First  to  put  a  stop  to  the  encroachments  made  upon  their 
grounds  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  outskirts;  and  a  commission 
was  directed  to  several  persons  of  eminence,  to  inquire  into  the 
circumstances,  and  restore  the  archery-field  to  its  former  state. 
On  a  former  occasion  (in  1514)  the  people  of  Hoxton,  and  neigh- 
bouring villages,  having  committed  a  similar  trespass,  the  citizens 
of  London  took  the  law  into  their  own  hands,  and,  assembling  in 
great  numbers,  with  spades  and  pick-axes,  proceeded  at  once  to 
remove  all  the  obnoxious  enclosures  and  ditches.  Charles  the 
Second  was  not  only  an  archer  himself,  but  so  much  disposed  to 
encourage  the  sport,  that  he  knighted  a  man  for  excelling  Sir 
William  Wood,  a  celebrated  archer,  at  shooting  with  the  long-bow. 
From  the  death  of  Charles,  archery  gradually  declined,  until 
towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  when  it  was  revived  in 
various  parts  of  England.  A  number  of  societies  have,  since  that 
time,  been  established,  and  this  excellent  pastime  has  now,  for 
some  years  past,  been  patronised  and  practised  by  ladies  of  the 
first  rank.  Meetings  of  archers,  of  both  sexes,  occur  frequently 


ARCHERY. 


421 


in  the  course  of  every  season :  they  are  attended  by  many  of  the 
female  nobility,  and  form,  perhaps,  the  most  brilliant  and  at- 
tractive rural  fe"tes  which  are  enjoyed  throughout  the  year. 

Ladies  usually  shoot  at  a  distance  of  about  fifty  yards:  two 
targets  are  placed  opposite  each  other,  and  the  archers  shoot  from 
one  to  the  other;  that  is,  when  all  the  party  have  shot  at  one  target, 
they  walk  up  to  it,  gather  their  arrows,  and  shoot  back  to  the  one 
they  came  from,  to  which  they  again  return  when  their  arrows  are 
expended;  and  so  on,  shooting  from  one  to  the  other  in  rotation;  so 
that,  not  merely  the  arm,  but  the  whole  frame,  enjoys  the  benefit  of 
salutary  exercise  in  the  open  air,  while  the  mind  is  interested,  and 
the  spirits  elevated  by  the  sport.  The  attitude  of  an  accomplished 
female  archer, — of  one  who  has  studied  and  practised  the  art  in  a 
proper  manner  (for  archery  is  not  be  acquired  without  a  little 
application,) — at  the  moment  of  bending  the  bow,  is  particularly 
graceful ;  all  the  a*ctions  and  positions  tend  at  once  to  produce  a 
proper  degree  of  strength  in  the  limbs,  and  to  impart  a  general 
elegance  to  the  deportment.  For  these  and  other  reasons  that 
might  be  adduced  in  its  favour,  as  a  healthful  and  agreeable  pas- 
time, Shooting  at  the  Target  is  equalled  by  few,  and  scarcely 
excelled  by  any  recreation  in  which  propriety  permits  young  ladies 
to  indulge. 


422 


ARCHERY. 


BOWS,  ARROWS,  AND  ACCOUTREMENTS. 

In  the  selection  of  a  bow,  the  young  archer  must  confide  in  an 
experienced  friend,  or  the  bowyer  from  whom  it  is  purchased. 
The  chief  point  to  be  attended  to  is,  that  it  is  not  so  much  above 
her  strength  as  to  prevent  her  using  it  with  sufficient  ease. 

The  weight  of  the  arrow  should  be  proportioned  to  the  power 
of  the  bow;  the  nock  (Fig.  1.  a,)  which  ought  to  be  cased  with 
horn,  should  exactly  fit  the  string:  it  is  to 
be  observed,  that  of  the  three  feathers  with 
which  arrows  are  furnished,  the  one  which 
is  of  a  different  colour  from  the  other  two, 
or  which,  if  all  three  are  alike  in  this  re- 
spect, is  placed  upon  the  horn,  is  denominated  the  cock  feather,  and 
must  always  be  uppermost  on  the  string.  A  difference  of  opinion 
exists  among  archers,  as  to  whether  the  arrow  should  taper  from 
the  feathers  (Fig.  1)  to  the  pile  (Fig.  2),  from  the  pile  to  the  feathers, 
or  in  each  direction  from  the  middle.  Arrows  may  be  obtained  in 
either  of  these  forms,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  archer ;  but 
those  which  taper  from  the  pile  to  the  feathers  are  generally  re- 
puted to  be  the  best. 

The  brace  (Fig.  3)  is  made  of  stout  leather,  with  a  smooth 
surface,  and  is  buckled  round  the  bow  arm,  just  above  the  wrist, 
to  prevent  the  string  from  hurting  it.  A 
shooting-glove,  consisting  of  three  finger- 
stalls, back-slips,  and  a  cross  strap  buttoned 
round  the  wrist,  is  also  worn  on  the  right 
hand,  to  protect  the  fingers  from  being  in- 
jured by  the  string.  The  tassel  (Fig.  4)  is 
necessary  to  wipe  away  any  dirt  that  may 
adhere  to  the  arrow  when  drawn  from  the 
ground*  The  grease-box  (Fig.  5)  contains 
a  composition,  with  which  the  brace  and  the 
finger-stalls  are  occasionally  anointed,  so  that 
the  string  may  more  easily  quit  the  latter  and  pass  over  the  former. 
The  belt  is  buckled  round  the  waist;  the  tassel  is  hung  on  the 
right  side  of  it,  and  the  grease-box  from  its  middle.  To  the  belt 
is  also  suspended  the  pouch,  in  which  two  or  three  arrows,  for 
present  use,  are  contained;  as  the  quiver  is  not  worn  in  target 
shooting, — it  being  placed  a  few  yards  aside,  with  other  arrows  in 
it  to  replace  those  in  the  pouch,  when  necessary. 


ARCHERY. 


423 


PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS. 

Bow-strings,  when  purchased,  have  a  loop  or  eye  at  one  end; 
and  a  noose  is  made  at  the  other,  on  which  the  string  is  fastened  to 
one  end  of  the  bow.  To  carry  the  eye  of  the  string  into  the  nock 
at  the  end  of  the  other  limb  of  the  bow,  or,  technically  speaking, 
to  string  it,  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  the  inexperienced. 
For  a  bow  of  five  feet  long,  the  distance  between  the  centre  of 
the  bow  and  the  string,  when  the  bow  is  properly  strung,  should 
not  exceed  five  inches,  and  in  the  same  proportion  for  a  greater 
or  lesser  length.  The  bow  is  always  to  be  bent  with  the  round 
part  inwards;  notwithstanding,  the  flat  part,  or  back  of  the  bow, 
should  be  inwards  when  it  is  unstrung:  they  are  manufactured  in 
that  manner  to  increase  their  power  in  shooting.  In  order  to 
string  the  bow  (see  fig.  6,)  it  must  be  taken,  by  the  right  hand,  ex- 
actly in  the  centre  of  the  handle:  its  flat  part,  or  back,  should  be 
turned  towards  the  archer;  the  right  arm 
must  rest  against  the  side ;  the  lower  end  of 
the  bow,  which  has  the  shortest  horn,  is  then 
to  be  placed  on  the  ground  against  the  inside 
of  the  right  foot,  which  should  be  slightly 
turned  inward,  to  prevent  the  end  from  slipping 
away;  the  left  foot  should  be  advanced;  the 
centre  of  the  left  wrist  placed  just  below  the 
eye  of  the  string,  in  the  upper  part,  or  limb  of 
the  bow,  with  the  end  of  the  thumb  upon  one 
edge,  and  one  of  the  knuckles  of  the  fore- 
finger upon  the  other :  the  other  three  fingers  must  be  stretched 
out,  as  they  are  useless  in  the  operation,  and  are  in  danger  of 
getting  under  the  string  and  being  seriously 
hurt,  if  the  eye  of  the  string  be  not  properly 
carried  into  the  nock  of  the  bow,  (Fig.  7,  #,  the 
nock  of  the  bow;  6,  the  eye  of  the  string.) 
With  the  bow  in  the  position  above  described, 
the  centre  of  it  is  to  be  pulled  smartly  up- 
wards by  the  right  hand ;  the  upper  limb,  at 
the  same  time,  being  pressed  downward  with 
the  left  wrist,  and  the  hand  carried  upward  until  the  eye  of  the 
string  is  received  into  the  nock.  When  the  archer  is  satisfied 
that  it  is  correctly  placed,  and  not  before,  she  is  to  remove  her 
left  hand  from  the  bow,  which  will  then  be  perfectly  strung. 
36 


424 


ARCHERY. 


The  operation  of  stringing  the  bow  is  to  be  performed  calmly 
and  patiently;  and  it  should  be  practised  until  it  becomes  easy  of 
execution.  Should  the  right  foot  slip,  on  account  of  the  pressure 
of  the  lower  limb  of  the  bow,  the  outside  of  the  foot  may  be 
placed  against  a  wall,  or  some  other  fixed  object ;  and  if  the  string 
should  get  under  the  thumb  or  finger  of  the  left  hand,  they  must 
be  pressed  more  closely  against  the  edges;  as  it  is  to  be  observed, 
that  the  eye  of  the  string  must  be  carried  up  above  the  finger  and 
thumb,  and  not  between  them  and  the  edges  of  the  bow. 

To  unstring  the  bow,  the  archer  places  herself  in  the  attitude 
for  stringing  it ;  but  the  left  wrist  must  be  placed  so  near  the  top 
of  the  upper  limb,  that  the  fore-finger  may  reach  round  the  horn, 
and  its  tip  be  inserted  in  the  eye  of  the  string:  in  this  position, 
the  centre  of  the  bow  is  pulled  upwards  with  the  right  hand ;  its 
upper  limb  "pressed  downward  with  the  left;  and,  when  the  string 
is  sufficiently  slackened,  the  eye  of  the  string  is  removed  by  the 
fore-finger. 

The  bow  being  strung,  its  handle  is  grasped  with  the  left 
hand,  and  held,  horizontally,  with  the  string  upwards,  while  the 
arrow  is  taken,  by  its  middle  part,  from  the  pouch,  and  carried 
under  the  string  to  the  left  of  the  bow,  until  its  pile  reaches  the 
left  hand,  the  fore-finger  of  which  then  re- 
ceives it,  and  the  right  hand  is  removed  from 
its  middle  to  the  nock:  the  arrow  is  next 
to  be  drawn  down  the  bow,  and  the  string 
placed  in  the  nock,  with  the  cock  feather 
uppermost,  and  exactly  opposite  the  centre 
of  the  handle:  the  fore-finger  is  then  re- 
moved from  the  arrow  and  placed  round  the 
?bow  (Fig.  8.)  To  pull  the  string  up,  in 
order  to  discharge  the  arrow,  the  thumb  is 
not  used:  the  string  is  drawn  (and  the  arrow 
with  it)  by  two  or  three  fingers  only ;  it  should  be  taken  about 
midway  between  the  tips  and  first  joints,  so  that  when  drawn,  it  may 
be  easily  and  instantly  disengaged. 

The  attitude  in  shooting  is  a  matter  of  much  importance :  the 
heels  should  be  a  few  inches  apart ;  the  neck  slightly  curved,  so 
as  to  bring  the  head  a  little  downward ;  the  face,  but  no  part  of 
the  front  of  the  body,  is  to  be  turned  towards  the  mark.  The 
left  arm  must  be  held  out  quite  straight  to  the  wrist,  which  should 
be  bent  inwards;  the  bow  is  to  be  held  easy  in  the  hand;  and 
the  arrow,  when  drawn,  should  be  brought,  not  towards  the  eye, 


ARCHERY. 


425 


but  the  ear  (Fig.  9).     The  right  hand  should  begin  to  draw  the 
9  string  as  the  left  raises  the  bow:  when  the 

arrow  is  three  parts  drawn,  the  aim  is  to  be 
taken ;  in  doing  this,  the  pile  should  appear  to 
the  right  of  the  mark;  the  arrow  is  then 
drawn  to  its  head,  and  immediately  loosened. 
On  account  of  the  handle  being  placed  rather 
below  the  centre  of  the  bow,  in  order  to 
equalize  the  resistance  to  the  pull,  the  lower 
limb  is  made  shorter  and  stronger  than  the 
upper.  As  the  young  archer  will  be  in  danger 
of  breaking  her  bow  if  she  draw  it  with  the 
weak  limb  downward,  she  should  carefully 
observe  that  it  is  in  its  proper  position.  As  that  part  of  the  string 
which  receives  the  nock  of  the  arrow,  is  always  whipped  round 
with  sewing  silk,  to  prevent  it  from  wearing,  the  archer  may  be 
sure  that  the  bow  is  upside  down  if  there  be  no  silk  on  the  string, 
where  it  receives  the  nock  of  the  arrow  when  properly  placed. 

To  draw  the  arrow  from  the  mark  or  ground,  it  should  be  taken 
by  the  hand,  as  near  to  the  pile  as  possible,  and  extracted  in  the 
same  direction  as  it  entered.  If  these  instructions  be  not  attended 
to,  the  young  archer  will  break  many  arrows  in  drawing  them 
from  the  ground,  or  the  mark  when  she  is  so  successful  as  to  hit  it. 
A  person  at  the  targets  should  be  furnished  with  a  card,  having 
proper  divisions  (Fig.  10)  for  the  insertion  of  the  archers'  names, 
and  to  register  the  hits  made  by  each  as  they  occur.  This  is  usually 
done  with  a  pin,  suspended  from  the  card,  as  the  holes  made  by 
it  are  more  proof  against  accidents  than  the  marks  of  a  pencil; 
and  ink  in  the  archery-ground  is  very  inconvenient. 
10 


Names. 

Gold. 

Reel. 

White. 

Black. 

Outer  White. 

Total. 

Value. 

A 

28 

63 

B 

25 

70 

The  face  of  the  target  contains  four  circles  and  a  gold  centre : 
the  inner-circle  is  red;  the  next,  white;  the  third,  black;   and  the 


426 


ARCHERY. 


outer  is  white,  bordered  with  green.  The  mode  of  ascertaining 
the  value  of  the  hits,  which  is  increased  in  proportion  as  they  reach 
the  centre,  will  be  seen  by  the  following  example: — It  appears  by 
the  card  (Fig.  10,)  that  A  has  one  in  the  gold,  three  in  the  red, 
seven  in  the  inner-white,  eleven  in  the  black,  and  fifteen  in  the 
outer-white,  making,  in  the  whole,  twenty-eight:  the  real  value 
of  these  is  to  be  ascertained  by  multiplying  the  hits  in  the  gold 
by  nine;  in  the  red,  by  three;  in  the  inner-white,  by  two;  by 
adding  a  fourth  to  those  in  the  black,  and  leaving  the  number 
without  alteration  of  those  in  the  white:  by  this  process  it  will 
appear,  that  A.'s  numbers  according  to  the  value  of  each  circle, 
amount  to  sixty-three.  B.'s  total  number  of  hits  (Fig.  10)  are 
twenty-five  only;  but  calculated  in  the  same  manner,  they  surpass 
A.'s  by  seven.  At  grand  meetings  there  are  frequently  two  prizes 
contested  for :  one,  the  prize  for  numbers,  computed  in  the  manner 
we  have  described ;  and  another  for  the  hit  nearest  the  centre  of 
gold.  Different  opinions  have  been  entertained,  as  to  hits  on 
the  edge  of  a  circle:  the  best  mode,  perhaps,  is  to  reckon  them  as 
falling  in  the  outer  circle. 


RIDING. 


The  Virgin  dueeu,  peerless  Elizabeth, 
With  grace  and  dignity  rode  through  the  host: 
And  proudly  paced  her  gallant  steed,.  as  though 
He  knew  his  saddle  was  a  royal  throne. 


EALTH  and  cheerfulness,  says  an  old  author, 
are  pursued  with  a  better  prospect  of  success 
on  Horseback  than  in  any  other  manner. 
Riding,  it  is  generally  admitted,  ranks  in 
the  first  class  of  exercises:  but  it  is  an  art, 
which  those  who  are  unskilled  in  can  never 
sufficiently  appreciate,  or  truly  enjoy;  and 
daily  experience  proves  to  us,  that  the  greater  portion  of  those 
ladies  who  indulge  in  it,  labour  under  this  disadvantage.  In  no 
other  art  are  there  so  many  self-taught  amateurs:  numbers  of 
ladies  have  a  decided  objection  to  going  through  the  ordeal  of  a 
riding-school;  others  do  not  reside  where  they  can  obtain  the 
benefit  of  a  master's  instructions;  and  the  generality  consider 
that  they  are  in  possession  of  all  that  can  be  acquired  on  the 
subject,  when  they  have  discovered  a  mode  of  retaining  the  seat 
and  guiding  the  horse.  To  such  of  our  readers  as  happen  to 
belong  to  either  of  these  classes,  and  also  to  those  who,  having 
been  taught  by  a  riding-master,  are  still  desirous  of  further  im- 
provement, the  following  treatise  will,  the  writer  flatters  himself, 
if  carefully  perused,  be  productive  of  considerable  advantage. 
36* 


428 


RIDING. 


MOUNTLNG. 

On  approaching  a  horse,  die  tail  of  the  habit  should  be  grace- 
fully gathered  up,  and  the  whip  be  carried  in  the  right-hand 
(Fig.  1).  The  hat  should  previously  be  well  secured,  and  the  hair 
combed  back,  or  otherwise  so  closely  dressed, 
that  neither  the  wind,  the  action  of  the  horse, 
the  effect  of  damp  weather,  nor  exercise,  may 
throw  it  into  disorder.  Losing  the  hat  is  not 
only  attended  with  unpleasant  consequences 
of  a  trifling  nature,  but  its  fall  may  make  the 
horse  start,  plunge,  or  even  run  away;  and 
should  it,  when  blown  off  the  head,  be  pre- 
vented from  dropping  to  the  ground,  by  means 
of  a  fastening  under  the  chin,  the  action  of 
raising  the  whip-hand  in  a  hurry  to  replace 
it,  accompanied,  as  it  generally  is,  by  a  slight 
flutter  of  the  whole  frame  of  the  rider,  if  either 
timid  or  inexperienced,  is  very  likely  to  alarm 
the  horse,  if  he  happen  to  be  shy  or  spirited. 
The  hair,  if  loosely  dressed,  may  lose  its  curl,  and,  by  falling  over, 
or  being  blown  in  the  eyes  of  the  rider,  greatly  embarrass  and 
annoy  her. 

It  is  the  groom's  duty,  when  die  rider  approaches,  to  gather  up 
the  reins  with  his  left  hand,  smoodily  and  evenly,   the  bit  reins 
2  between,     and      somewhat 

tighter  than  the  bridoon, 
properly  dividing  them  with 
his  fore  finger  (Fig.  2). 
The  lady  receives  them  a 
little  more  forward  than 
the  point  of  the  horse's 
shoulder,  with  her  right 
hand,  which  still  retains 
and  passes  the  whip  over 
the  saddle  to  the  off  (or 
right)  side:  on  taking  the 
bridle  in  this  manner,  her 
fore-finger  is  placed  be- 
tween the  reins;  the  groom  removes  his  hand,  and  the  lady  draws 
IKTS  hack,  suffering  the  reins  to  glide  gently  and  evenly  through  her 


RIDING. 


429 


fingers,  until  she  reaches  the  near  crutch  of  the  pommel,  which 
she  takes  hold  of  with  her  right  hand,  still  holding  the  whip  and 
reins,  and  places  herself  close  to  the  near  side  of  the  saddle,  with 
her  back  almost  turned  towards  it.  The  groom  now  quits  his 
former  post,  and  prepares  to  assist  her  to  mount.  The  horse  being 
thus  left  under  the  lady's  government,  it  is  proper,  that  in  passing 
her  hand  through  the  reins  she  should  not  have  suffered  them 
to  become  so  loose  as  to  prevent  her,  when  her  hand  is  on  the 
pommel,  from  having  a  light,  but  steady  bearing  on  the  bit,  and 
thus  keeping  the  horse  to  his  position  during  the  action  of  mount- 
ing. She  then  places  her  left  foot  firmly  in  the  right  hand  of 
the  groom  or  gentleman  in  attendance,  who  stoops  to  receive  it. 
The  lady  then  lays  her  left  hand  on  his  right  shoulder,  and 
straightening  her  left  knee,  she  bears  her  weight  on  her  assistant's 
hand,  which  he  gradually  raises  (rising  himself  at  the  same  time) 
until  she  is  seated  on  the  saddle.  During  her  elevation,  she  steadies, 
and  even,  if  necessary,  partly  assists  herself  towards  the  saddle  by 
her  hands;  one  of  which,  it  will  be  recollected,  is  placed  on  the  pom- 
mel, and  the  other  on  her 
assistant's  shoulder.  It  is 
important  that  she  should 
keep  her  foot  firm  and  her 
.  knee  steady.  If  these  di- 
rections be  attended  to,  she 
will  find  herself  raised  to 
her  saddle  with  but  a  tri- 
fling exertion,  either  on  her 
own  part  or  that  of  the 
assistant.  Should  the  latter 
be  a  lad  only,  or  not  much 
accustomed  to  this  part  of 
his  business,  he  should  use 

both  hands  instead  of  one  (Fig.  3), — joining  them  by  the  fingers: 
indeed,  this,  generally  speaking,  is  the  safer  mode.  The  lady,  in 
all  cases,  should  take  care  that  her  weight  be  well  balanced  on  her 
left  foot,  from  which  she  should  rise  as  uprightly  as  possible ;  above 
all  things  taking  care  not  to  put  her  foot  forward,  but  keeping  it 
directly  under  her.  The  assistant  should  not  begin  to  raise  her 
until  she  has  removed  her  right  foot  from  the  ground,  and,  by 
strengthening  her  knee,  thrown  her  weight  completely  into  his 
hand.  Having  reached  the  saddle,  while  her  face  is  still  turned  to 
the  near  side  of  the  horse,  and  before  she  places  her  knee  over 


430 


RIDING. 


the  pommel, — when  some  ladies,  very  improperly,  first  take  the 
reins, — (Fig.  4,  a,)  the  assistant  puts  the  lady's  left  foot  in  the 
stirrup,  while  she  removes  her  hand  from  the  near  to  the  off  crutch 
of  the  pommel,  holding  the  whip  and  reins  as  before  directed.  She 
now  raises  herself  on  the  stirrup  by  the  aid  of  her  right  hand, 
while  the  assistant,  or  the  lady  herself  with  her  left  hand,  draws 
the  habit  forward  in  its  place.  She  then  places  her  right  knee  in 
the  pommel,  and  her  seat  is  taken  (Fig.  4,  6.) 


Should  the  back  part  of  the  habit  at  this  time,  or  afterwards, 
in  the  course  of  the  ride,  require  any  arrangement,  the  lady  raises 
herself  in  the  stirrup,  by  strengthening  her  knee  and  pulling  her- 
self forward  by  the  right  hand,  which  is  placed  on  the  off  crutch 
of  the  pommel,  and  with  her  left  hand  disposes  her  habit  to  her 
satisfaction.  This  can  be  done,  when  the  rider  has  grown  expert, 
while  the  horse  is  going  at  any  pace,  as  well,  if  not  better,  than  if 
he  were  standing  still.  When  the  laxly  is  seated,  the  groom  fastens 
the  habit  below  her  left  foot,  either  by  pins  or  a  brooch. 

THE  REINS. 

Pupils,  during  their  first  lessons,  may  dispose  of  the  reins  in 
the  following  manner: — The  right  hand  is  removed  from  the 
pommel  of  the  saddle;  the  reins  are  separated,  and  one  is  held 
in  each,  passing  up  between  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  the  ends 
being  brought  over  the  fore-lingers,  and  held  in  their  places  by 
closing  the  thumbs  upon  them,  and  shutting-  the  hands,  which 
should  be  on  a  level  with  each  other,  at  a  little  distance  apart, — 


RIDING.  431 

three  inches  from  the  body,  or  thereabouts, — and  the  knuckles 
of  the  little  fingers  in  a  line  with  the  elbow.  By  slightly  ad- 
vancing the  hands,  or  even  relaxing  the  hold  of  the  reins,  the 
horse,  if  well  trained,  will  go  forward.  The  left  hand  is  raised 
to  turn  to  the  near  or  left  side,  and  the  right  hand  to  turn  in  an 
opposite  direction.  By  slightly  raising  and  approaching  both  hands 
toward  the  body,  the  horse  may  be  made  to  stop.  When  either 
rein  is  acted  on  to  turn  the  horse,  the  other  should  be  a  little 
slackened,  or  the  hand  which  holds  it  relaxed. 

As  soon  as  the  pupil  has  passed  her  noviciate  in  the  art,  she 
holds  both  reins  in  the  left  hand:  some  ladies  separate  them  by  the 
third  and  fourth  fingers;  others,  by  one  of  these  fingers  only; 
and  many,  by  the  fourth  and  little  finger ;  but  the  greater  number 
use  the  latter  alone  for  this  purpose,  passing  the  off  or  right  rein 
over  it,  and  bringing  the  near  or  left  rein  up  beneath  it.  The 
reins  are  carried  flat  upon  each  other  up  through  the  hand,  near 
the  middle  joint  of  the  fore-finger,  and  the  thumb  is  placed  upon 
them  so  that  their  ends  fall  down  in  front  of  the  knuckles.  The 
elbow  should  neither  be  squeezed  close  to  the  side,  nor  thrust  out 
into  an  awkward  and  unnatural  position,  but  be  carried  easily  and 
gracefully,  at  a  moderate  distance  from  the  body:  the  thumb 
should  be  uppermost,  and  the  hand  so  placed  that  the  lower  part 
of  it  be  nearer  the  waist  than  the  upper;  the  wrist  should  be 
slightly  rounded,  the  little  finger  in  a  line  with  the  elbow,  the 
knuckles  immediately  above  the  horse's  neck,  and  the  nails  turned 
toward  the  rider. 

With  the  reins  in  this  position,  if  she  wish  her  horse  to  advance} 
the  lady  brings  her  thumb  towards  her,  until  the  knuckles  are 
uppermost,  and  the  nails  over  the  horse's  neck:  the  reins,  by  this 
simple  motion,  are  slackened  sufficiently  to  permit  the  horse  to 
move  forward.  After  he  is  put  in  motion,  the  rider's  hand  should 
return  to  the  first  position  gradually,  or  it  may  be  slightly  advanced, 
and  the  thumb  turned  upward  immediately. 

To  turn  a  horse  to  the  left,  let  the  thumb,  which  in  the  first 
position  is  uppermost,  be  turned  to  the  right,  the  little  finger  to  the 
left,  and  the  back  of  the  hand  brought  upward.  This  movement  is 
performed  in  a  moment,  and  it  will  cause  the  left  rein  to  hang 
slack,  while  the  right  is  tightened  so  as  to  press  against  the  horse's 
neck.  To  turn  to  the  left  the  hand  should  quit  the  first  position, 
the  nails  be  turned  upward,  the  little  finger  brought  in  toward  the 
right,  and  the  thumb  moved  to  the  left:  the  left  rein  will  thus 
press  the  neck,  while  the  right  one  is  slackened. 


432 


RIDING. 


To  stop  the  horse,  or  make  him  back,  the  nails  should  be 
turned  from  the  first  position  upwards,  the  knuckles  reversed, 
and  the  wrist  be  rounded  as  much  as  possible. 


THE  SEAT  AND  BALANCE. 

The  body,  says  Adams,  in  his  valuable  Treatise  on  Horseman- 
ship, must  always  be  in  a  situation,  as  well  to  preserve  the  balance, 

as  to  maintain  the 
seat  (see  fig.  5).  One 
of  the  most  common 
errors  committed  by 
ladies  on  horseback, 
who  have  not  been 
properly  taught  to 
ride,  is  hanging  by 
the  near  crutch,  so 
that  instead  of  being 
gracefully  seated  in 
the  centre  of  the 
saddle,  with  the  head 
in  its  proper  situa- 
tion, and  the  shoulders  even,  (Fig.  6,  a,)  the  body  is  inclined  to 
the  left,  the  head  is  brought  to  the  right  by  an  inelegant  bend  of 

the  neck  in  that  direction, 
the  right  shoulder  is  elevated, 
and  the  left  depressed  (Fig.  6, 
6.)  To  correct  or  avoid  these 
and  similar  faults,  is  import- 
ant. All  the  rider's  move- 
ments should  harmonize  with 
the  paces  of  the  animal ;  her 
position  should  be  at  once 
easy  to  herself  and  to  her 
horse,  and  alike  calculated  to 
ensure  her  own  safety  and 
give  her  a  perfect  command 
over  him.  If  she  sit  in  a  care- 
less,  ungraceful  manner,  the 
action  of  her  horse  will  be  the 

reverse  of  elegant.     A  lady  seldom  appears  to   greater  advantage 
than  when  mounted  on  a  fine  horse,  if  her  deportment  be  graceful, 


RIDING. 


433 


and  her  positions  correspond  with  his  paces  and  attitudes ;  but  the 
reverse  is  the  case,  if,  instead  of  acting  with,  and  influencing  the 
movements  of  the  horse,  she  appear  to  be  tossed  to  and  fro,  and 
overcome  by  them.  She  should  rise  and  descend,  advance  and 
stop  with,  and  not  after  the  animal.  From  this  harmony  of  motion 
results  ease,  elegance,  and  the  most  brilliant  effect.  The  lady 
should  sit  in  such  a  position,  that  the  weight  of  her  body  may  rest 
on  the  centre  of  the  saddle ;  one  shoulder  should  not  be  advanced 
more  than  the  other;  neither  must  she  bear  any  weight  on  the 
stirrup,  nor  hang  by  the  pommel  over  the  near  side;  she  ought 
not  to  suffer  herself  to  incline  forward,  but  partially  backward. 
If  she  bend  forward,  her  shoulders  will,  most  likely,  be  rounded, 
and  her  weight  thrown  too  much  upon  the  horse's  shoulders;  in 
addition  to  these  disadvantages,  the  position  will  give  her  an  air 
of  timid  gaucherie.  Leaning  a  little  backward,  on  the  contrary, 
tends  to  bring  the  shoulders  in,  keeps  the  weight  in  its  proper 
bearing,  and  produces  an  appearance  of  comely  confidence. 

The  head  should  be  in  an  easy,  natural  position ;  that  is,  neither 
drooping  forward  nor  thrown  back, — neither  leaning  to  the  right 
nor  to  the  left.  The  bust  should  be  elegantly  developed,  by  throw- 
ing back  the  shoulders,  advancing  the  chest,  and  bending  the 
back  part  of  the  waist  inward.  The  elbows 
should  be  steady,  and  kept  in  an  easy,  and 
apparently  unconstrained  position  near  the 
sides;  the  lower  part  of  the  arm  should 
form  a  right  angle  with  the  upper  part, 
which  ought  to  descend  almost  perpendi- 
cularly from  the  shoulder.  The  position  of 
the  hands,  when  both  are  occupied  with  the 
reins,  or  when  the  reins  are  held  in  one  only, 
we  have  already  noticed ;  the  right  arm  and 
hand,  in  the  latter  case,  may  drop  easily 
from  the  shoulder,  and  the  whip  be  held  in 
the  fingers,  with  the  lash  downwards,  be- 
tween two  fingers  and  the  thumb.  The  whip 
may  also  be  carried  in  the  right  hand,  in 
the  manner  adopted  by  gentlemen:  the  lady 
is  not  restricted  to  any  precise  rules  in  this 
respect,  but  may  vary  the  position  of  her  whip  arm  as  she  may 
think  fit,  so  that  she  do  not  permit  it  to  appear  ungraceful  (Figs.  7 
and  8).  She  must  also  take  care  that  the  whip  be  so  carried,  that 
its  point  do  not  tickle  or  irritate  the  flank  of  the  horse. 


434  RIDING. 

The  stirrup  is  of  very  little  use  except  to  support  the  left  foot  and 
leg,  and  to  assist  the  rider  to  rise  in  the  trot;  generally  speaking, 
therefore,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  none  of  the  weight  of 
the  body  should  be  thrown  upon  die  stirrup.  The  left  leg  should 
not  be  cramped  up,  but  assume  an  easy  and  comfortable  position ; 
it  should  neither  be  forced  out,  so  as  to  render  the  general  ap- 
pearance ungraceful,  and  the  leg  itself  fatigued;  nor  should  it 
be  pressed  close. to  the  horse,  except  when  used  as  an  aid; — but 
descend  gracefully  by  his  side,  without  bearing  against  it. 

Although  hanging  by  the  left  crutch  of  the  pommel,  over  the 
near  side,  is  not  only  inelegant,  but  objectionable  in  many  im- 
portant respects,  the  pommel,  properly  used,  is  a  lady's  principal 
dependance  on  horseback:  by  the  right  knee  being  passed  over  the 
near  crutch,  the  toes  slightly  elevated,  and  the  leg  pressed  against 
the  fore-flap  of  the  saddle,  the  pommel  is  grasped,  and  the  rider 
well  secured  in  the  possession  of  her  seat.  It  is  said,  that  when 
a  lady,  while  her  horse  is  going  at  a  smart  trot,  can  lean  over  on 
the  right  side,  far  enough  to  see  the  horse's  shoe,  she  may  be 
supposed  to  have  established  a  correct  seat;  which,  we  repeat,  she 
should  spare  no  pains  to  acquire.  In  some  of  the  schools,  a  pupil 
is  often  directed  to  ride  without  the  stirrup,  and  with  her  arms 
placed  behind  her,  while  the  master  holds  the  longe,  and  urges 
the  horse  to  various  degrees  of  speed,  and  in  different  directions, 
in  order  to  settle  her  firmly  and  gracefully  on  the  saddle, — to  con- 
vince her  that  there  is  security  without  the  stirrup, — and  to  teach 
her  to  accompany,  with  precision  and  ease,  the  various  move- 
ments of  the  horse. 

Nothing  can  be  more  detrimental  to  the  grace  of  a  lady's  ap- 
pearance on  horseback,  than  a  bad  position:  a  friend  of  ours 
says,  it  is  a  sight  that  would  spoil  the  finest  landscape  in  the 
world.  What  can  be  much  more  ridiculous,  than  a  female,  whose 
whole  frame,  through  mal-position,  seems  to  be  the  sport  of  every 
movement  of  the  horsed  It  is  certainly  rather  painful  to  behold 
such  a  sight.  If  the  lady  be  not  mistress  of  her  seat,  and  be  unable 
to  maintain  a  proper  position  of  her  limbs  and  body,  as  soon  as 
her  horse  starts  into  a  trot,  she  runs  the  risk  of  being  tossed  about 
on  the  saddle,  like  the  Halcyon  of  the  poets  in  her  frail  nest, — 

Floating  upon  the  boisterous  rude  sea. 

If  the  animal  should  canter,  his  fair  rider's  head  will  be  jerked 
to  and  fro  as  "a  vexed  weathercock;"  her  drapery  will  be  blown 
about,  instead  of  falling  gracefully  around  her;  and  her  elbows  rise 


RIDING.  435 

and  fall,  or,  as  it  were,  flap  up  and  down  like  the  pinions  of  an 
awkward  nestling  endeavouring  to  fly.  To  avoid  such  disagree- 
able similes  being  applied  to  her,  the  young  lady,  who  aspires  to  be 
a  good  rider,  should,  even  from  her  first  lesson  in  the  art,  strive 
to  obtain  a  proper  deportment  on  the  saddle.  She  ought  to  be 
correct,  without  seeming  stiff  or  formal;  and  easy,  without  ap- 
pearing slovenly.  The  position  we  have  described,  subject  to 
occasional  variations,  will  be  found,  by  experience,  to  be  the  most 
natural  and  graceful  mode  of  sitting  a  horse ; — it  is  easy  to  the 
rider  and  her  steed ;  and  enables  the  former  to  govern  the  actions 
of  the  latter  so  effectually,  in  all  ordinary  cases,  as  to  produce 
that  harmony  of  motion,  which  is  so  much  and  so  deservedly 
admired.  A  lady  should  ride  her  palfrey,  even  as  some  beautiful 
water-fowl  passes  onward  with  the  tide,  seeming,  in  the  eye  of 
fancy,  by  the  concord  of  its  motion  with  the  undulations  of 
the  water,  to  be  a  portion  of  the  stream,  on  the  surface  of  which 
it  floats. 

The  balance  is  conducive  to  the  ease,  elegance,  and  security 
of  the  rider: — it  consists  in  a  foreknowledge  of  what  direction 
any  given  motion  of  the  horse  would  throw  the  body,  and  a 
ready  adaptation  of  the  whole  frame  to  the  proper  position,  before 
the  horse  has  completed  his  change  of  attitude  or  action; — it  is 
that  disposition  of  the  person,  in  accordance  with  the  movements 
of  the  horse,  which  prevents  it  from  an  improper  inclination 
forward  or  backward,  to  the  right  or  to  the  left. 

The  balance  is  governed  by  the  direction  and  motion  of  the 
horse's  legs.  If  the  animal  be  either  standing  still,  or  merely  walk- 
ing straight  forward,  the  body  should  be  preserved  in  the  simple 
position  which  we  have  directed  the  lady  to  assume  on  taking  her 
seat.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  apply  the  whip,  so  as  to  make 
the  animal  quicken  his  pace,  or  to  pull  him  in  suddenly,  the  body 
must  be  prepared  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  animal's  change  of 
action.  When  going  round  a  corner  at  a  brisk  pace,  or  riding  in 
a  circle,  the  body  should  lean  back  rather  more  than  in  the 
walking  position ;  in  the  same  degree  that  the  horse  bends  in- 
ward, must  the  body  lean  in  that  direction.  If  a  horse  shy  at  any 
object,  and  either  turn  completely  and  suddenly  round,  or  run 
on  one  side  only,  the  body  should,  if  possible,  keep  time  with  his 
movements,  and  adapt  itself  so  as  to  turn  or  swerve  with  him; 
otherwise  the  balance  will  be  lostj  and  the  rider  be  in  danger  of 
falling  off  on  the  side  from  which  the  horse  starts. 

The  proper  mode  of  preserving  the  balance  under  some  other 
37 


436  RIDING. 

circumstances,  will  be  found  described  in  the  course  of  the  follow- 
ing pages.  In  no  case,  let  it  be  remembered,  should  the  rider 
endeavour  to  assist  herself  in  preserving  her  balance,  by  pulling 
at  the  reins. 

AIDS  AND  DEFENCES. 

All  those  motions  of  the  body,  the  hands,  the  legs,  and  the  whip, 
which  either  indicate  the  rider's  wishes,  or,  in  some  degree,  assist 
the  horse  to  perform  them,  are,  in  the  art  of  Riding,  denominated 
aids:  those  movements  of  the  rider  which  tend  to  save  the  animal 
from  disuniting  himself,  or  running  into  danger,  may,  properly 
enough,  be  classed  under  the  same  title ;  while  such  as  act  for  the 
preservation  of  the  rider,  against  the  attempts  of  the  horse,  when 
headstrong  or  vicious,  may  more  properly  perhaps  be  called 
defences. 

The  aids  of  the  hand  are  considered  the  most  important ;  the 
rein,  in  horsemanship,  may  in  fact  be  considered  in  the  same 
light  as  the  helm  in  navigation ;  all  die  other  movements  of  the 
rider  tending  principally  to  assist  the  bridle-hand,  and  carry  its 
operations  into  more  complete  effect.  There  should  be  a  perfect 
harmony  in  the  aids;  and  all  of  them  ought  to  be  governed  by 
those  of  the  rein.  In  many  instances,  the  power  of  a  defence 
performed  by  the  hand  may  be  destroyed  by  the  omission  of  a 
correct  accompanying  aid  with  the  body  or  the  leg.  Thus,  if  a 
horse  rear,  it  is  useless  for  the  rider  to  afford  him  a  slack  rein,  if 
she  do  not  also  lean  forward,  in  order,  by  throwing  her  weight  on 
his  fore-parts,  to  bring  him  down,  and  also  to  save  herself  from 
falling  backward  over  his  haunches.  Should  the  rider,  when  her 
horse  rises,  slacken  the  reins,  but  retain  her  usual  position  on  ihe 
saddle, — if  he  rear  high, — she  must  necessarily  be  thrown  off  her 
balance ;  and  then,  if  she  hang  on  the  bit,  in  order  to  save  herself 
from  falling,  there  is  great  danger  of  her  pulling  the  horse  over 
upon  her.  Instances  might  be  multiplied  of  the  necessity  of 
the  other  aids,  or  defences,  acting  as  accompaniments  to  those  of 
the  hand ;  we  trust,  however,  that  our  readers  will  be  satisfied 
with  the  one  we  have  given. 

The  aids  and  defences  of  the  body  are  numerous :  we  shall 
attempt  to  describe  a  few  of  them ;  and  the  residue  must  be  ac- 
quired by  practice,  and  the  pupil's  own  observation.  When  the 
rider  indicates  by  her  hand  that  she  wishes  the  horse  to  advance, 
the  body  should  be  inclined  forward  in  a  slight  degree;  the  left 


RIDING.  437 

leg,  and,  if  the  animal  be  sluggish  or  not  well  trained,  the  whip 
pressed  to  his  sides.  Should  she,  by  pulling  the  reins  toward  her, 
or  turning  the  wrist  in  the  manner  we  have  before  directed,  com- 
municate her  desire  to  stop,  her  body  ought,  at  the  same  time,  to 
be  thrown  back  with  gentleness,  or  otherwise,  in  proportion  to 
the  severity  of  the  action  of  the  hand,  against  the  horse's  inclina- 
tion to  increase  his  speed  contrary  to  the  will  of  his  rider,  or  when 
he  leaps,  kicks,  or  plunges.  If  a  horse  rear,  the  rider  should  lean 
forward  more  than  in  the  aid  for  the  advance;  but  care  must 
be  taken,  in  this  case,  to  perform  the  defence  with  discretion, 
especially  with  a  poney,  or  galloway;  for  should  the  animal  rise 
suddenly,  and  the  rider  throw  herself  abruptly  forward,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  he  will  give  her  a  violent  blow  in  the  face  with 
the  top  of  his  head. 

We  have  already  stated,  in  a  previous  part  of  our  little  treatise, 
the  direction  which  the  body  should  take  when  riding  in  a  circle, 
turning  a  corner,  or  acting  as  a  defence  against  the  danger  at- 
tendant upon  a  horse's  shying.  In  the  first  case,  the  aid  of  the 
body,  if  properly  performed,  will  carry  with  it  the  aid  of  the  hand, 
the  leg,  and  even  the  whip  if  it  be  held  near  the  horse's  side. 
We  will  explain  this  by  an  example: — Suppose  the  rider  wishes  to 
turn  a  corner  on  her  left; — she  inclines  a  little  toward  it, — drawing 
her  left  shoulder  in,  and  thrusting  her  right  shoulder  rather  for- 
ward ;  the  bridle  hand  will  thus  be  drawn  back  on  the  near  side, 
the  off  rein  consequently  act  on  the  horse's  neck,  and  the  left  leg 
be  pressed  close  against  the  near  side ;  so  that  all  the  necessary 
aids  for  effecting  her  object,  are  performed  by  a  single  natural  and 
easy  movement  of  the  body. 

The  aids  of  the  whip  on  one  side  correspond  with  those  of  the 
leg  on  the  other :  they  are  not  only  used  in  the  manner  we  have 
already  mentioned,  when  the  rider  wishes  her  horse  to  advance, 
or  increase  his  pace,  but  also  in  opening  a  corner,  &c.  If  the 
lady  be  desirous  of  turning  to  the  left,  she  may  materially  aid  the 
operation  of  the  hand,  which  directs  the  fore-parts  of  the  horse  to 
the  near  side,  by  pressing  him  with  her  stirrup  leg,  so  as  to  throw 
his  croupe  in  some  degree  to  the  right,  and  thereby  place  it  in  a 
more  proper  position  to  follow  the  direction  of  his  shoulders :  in 
turning  to  the  right,  the  whip  may  be  made  equally  useful  by 
driving  out  his  croupe  to  the  left.  The  power  of  these  aids,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  whip,  should  be  increased  as  circumstances 
require.  The  aid  which  is  sufficient  for  nine  horses,  may  not  be 
powerful  enough  to  serve  for  the  tenth :  and  even  with  the  same 


438  RIDING. 

animal,  while  the  slightest  pressure  will  produce  the  desired  effect 
in  many  cases,  a  moderate,  and  sometimes  a  smart  lash  with  the 
whip  is  necessary  in  others.  The  degree  of  severity  must  be 
governed  by  circumstances,  and  the  rider's  own  experience  and 
judgment. 

SOOTHINGS,  ANIMATIONS,  &c. 

The  voice  and  the  hand,  the  leg  and  the  whole  body,  may  be 
employed  to  soothe  and  encourage.  High-mettled  or  fretful 
horses,  it  is  often  necessary  to  soothe,  and  timid  ones  to  encourage. 
A  spirited  animal  is  frequently  impatient  when  first  mountc'l,  or 
if  a  horse  or  a  carriage  pass  him  at  a  quick  rate;  and  some  horses 
are  even  so  ardent  and  animated,  as  to  be  unpleasant  when  in 
company  with  others.  In  any  of  these  cases,  the  rider  should 
endeavour  to  soothe  her  horse,  by  speaking  to  him  in  a  gentle, 
calm  tone;  she  should  suffer  the  whip  to  be  as  motionless  as 
possible,  and  take  even  more  than  usual  care  that  its  lash  do  not 
touch  the  flank;  her  seat  should  be  easy,  her  leg  still,  and  her 
bridle  hand  steady ;  the  bit  should  not  be  made  to  press  on  the 
horse's  mouth  with  greater  severity  than  is  necessary  to  maintain 
the  rider's  command;  and  as  the  horse  gradually  subsides  from  his 
animation,  its  bearing  should  be  relaxed  in  proportion.  The  per- 
fection of  soothing  consists  in  the  rider  sitting  so  perfectly  still 
and  easy,  as  not  to  add  in  the  least  to  the  horse's  animation, — at 
the  same  time  being  on  her  guard,  so  as  to  be  able  to  effect  any 
of  her  defences  in  an  instant,  should  they  be  necosary. 

There  is  scarcely  any  difference  between  soothings  and  encou- 
ragements; except,  that  in  the  latter  it  is  advisable  to  pat,  and  as 
it  were  caress  the  horse  with  the  right  hand,  holding  the  whip  in 
the  left.  A  shy  or  timid  horse  may  often  be  encouraged  to  pass 
anything  that  alarms  him  on  the  road,  to  cross  a  bridge,  enter  a 
gateway,  or  take  a  leap,  when  force  and  correction  would  only 
add  to  his  fears,  and,  perhaps,  render  him  incorrigibly  obstinate. 

Animations  are  intended  to  produce  greater  speed,  or  to  render 
the  horse  more  lively  and  on  the  alert  without  increasing  his 
pace.  Some  animals  scarcely  ever  require  animations,  while  others 
are  so  dull  and  deficient  in  mettle,  as  to  call  them  frequently  into 
use.  The  slightest  movement  of  the  body,  the  hand,  or  the  leg, 
is  enough  to  rouse  the  well-bred  and  thoroughly-trained  animal; 
but  it  is  necessary  for  the  animations  to  be  so  spirited  and  united 
with  sluggish  horses,  as  almost  to  become  corrections:  in  fact, 


RIDING.  439 

what  is  a  mere  animation  to  one  horse,  would  be  a  positive  cor- 
rection to  another. 

The  aids  of  the  hand,  the  whip,  the  leg,  and  the  body,  which 
we  have  before  described,  are  animations;  so,  also,  are  pattings 
with  the  hand,  the  tones  of  the  voice,  &c.  Animations  should  be 
used  in  all  cases,  when  the  horse,  contrary  to  the  rider's  inclina- 
tion, either  decreases  his  speed,  droops  his  head,  bears  heavily  and 
languidly  on  the  bit,  or  begins  to  be  lazy  or  slovenly  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  pace.  A  good  rider  foresees  the  necessity  of  an 
animation  before  the  horse  actually  abates  his  speed,  or  loses  the 
ensemble  of  his  action,  and  the  grace  and  spirit  of  his  deportment; 
and  the  slightest  movement  is  then  generally  sufficient.  It  is  much 
easier  to  keep  up  than  to  restore  a  horse's  animation ;  therefore, 
the  whip,  the  leg,  the  hand,  or  the  tongue,  should  do  its  office  a 
few  moments  before,  rather  than  at  a  time  when  its  movements 
are  indispensable.  A  slight  motion  of  the  fingers  of  the  bridle 
hand  serves  as  an  excellent  animation ;  it  reminds  the  horse  of  his 
duty,  awakens  the  sensibility  of  his  mouth,  and  preserves  the 
correspondence  between  that  and  the  hand.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  recur  to  animations  frequently,  they  ought  to  be  varied:  even 
the  whip,  if  it  be  often  used,  unless  with  different  degrees  of  force, 
will  lose  its  effect. 

CORRECTIONS. 

Ladies  certainly  ought  not  to  ride  horses  which  require  extra- 
ordinary correction.  For  numerous  reasons,  which  must  occur  to 
our  readers,  a  lady  should  never  be  seen  in  the  act  of  flogging 
her  steed:  such  a  sight  would  destroy  every  previous  idea  that 
had  been  formed  of  her  grace  or  gentleness:  but  moderate  cor- 
rections are  sometimes  necessary,  and  the  fair  rider  should  make 
no  scruple  of  having  recourse  to  them  when  absolutely  needful, 
but  not  otherwise.  Astley,  in  his  work  on  the  management  of  the 
horse,  after  very  properly  recommending  all  quarrels  between  the 
steed  and  his  rider  to  be  avoided,  observes,  that  too  great  a 
degree  of  indulgence  may  induce  the  horse  to  consider  that  you 
are  afraid  of  him;  and,  he  adds,  if  he  should  once  think  you 
are  really  so,  you  will  find  he  will  exercise  every  means  to  convince 
you  that  he  considers  himself  your  master,  instead  of  acknow- 
ledging, by  implicit  obedience,  that  you  are  his.  This  is  a  very 
correct  observation,  and  it  is  discreet  "  to  check  rebellion  in  its 
very  bud:"  this  may  be  done,  in  most  cases,  by  corrections  of  a 
very  gentle  nature. 

37* 


440  RIDING. 

Those,  who  imagine  that  a  horse  is  to  be  corrected  only  with 
the  whip,  are  very  much  mistaken.  The  aids  and  animations  of 
the  leg,  the  bridle  hand,  the  body  and  the  voice,  may  be  made 
sufficiently  severe  to  correct  and  render  a  horse  obedient,  in  all 
ordinary  cases.  Severe  flogging  seldom  produces  any  good  effect; 
and  in  most  quarrels  between  a  horse  and  his  rider,  when  both 
get  out  of  temper,  the  former  usually  gains  some  important  ad- 
vantage. The  best  way  to  correct  a  horse  is  to  dishearten,  and 
make  him  do  what  he  would  fain  avoid, — not  so  much  by  force  and 
obstinate  resolution,  in  contesting  openly  and  directly  with  him 
when  he  is  able  and  prepared  to  resist,  but  by  a  cool  opposition 
and  indirect  means.  There  are  different  methods  of  attaining  the 
same  end;  and  those  which  are  the  least  obvious  to  the  animal 
should  be  adopted:  a  rider  cannot  rival  him  in  bodily  power,  but 
she  may  conquer  him  by  the  exercise  of  superior  ingenuity. 


VICES. 

Some  horses  are  addicted  to  a  very  troublesome  and  vicious 
habit  of  turning  round  suddenly, — we  do  not  here  allude  to  shy- 
ness, but  restiveness, — without  exhibiting  any  previous  symptom 
of  their  intention.  A  horse  soon  ascertains  that  the  left  hand  is 
weaker  than  the  right,  and,  consequently,  less  able  to  oppose  him; 
he,  therefore,  turns  on  the  off  side,  and  with  such  force  and  sud- 
denness, that  it  is  almost  impossible,  even  if  the  rider  be  prepared 
for  the  attack,  to  prevent  him:  in  this  case,  it  would  be  unwise 
to  make  the  attempt;  the  rider  would  be  foiled,  and  the  horse 
become  encouraged,  by  his  success  in  the  struggle,  to  make  similar 
endeavours  to  have  his  own  way,  or  dismount  his  rider.  The 
better  plan  is,  instead  of  endeavouring  to  prevent  him  from  turn- 
ing, with  the  left  hand,  to  pull  him  sharply  with  the  right,  until  his 
head  has  made  a  complete  circle,  and  he  finds,  to  his  astonish- 
ment, that  he  is  precisely  in  the  place  from  which  he  started. 
Should  he  repeat  the  turn,  on  the  rider's  attempting  to  urge  him 
forward,  she  should  pull  him  round  on  the  same  side  three  or  four 
times,  and  assist  the  power  of  the  hand  in  so  doing,  by  a  smart 
aid  of  the  whip,  or  the  leg:  while  this  is  doing,  she  must  take 
care  to  preserve  her  balance  by  an  inclination  of  the  body  to  the 
centre  of  the  circle  which  is  described  by  the  horse's  head  in  his 
evolution.  The  same  plan  may  be  pursued  when  a  horse  endea- 
vours to  turn  a  corner,  contrary  to  the  wish  of  his  rider:  and  if 


RIDING.  441 

he  be  successfully  baffled  three  or  four  times,  it  is  most  probable 
that  he  will  not  renew  his  endeavours.  On  the  same  principle, 
when  a  horse  refuses  to  advance,  and  whipping  would  increase  his 
obstinacy,  or  make  him  rear,  or  bolt  away  in  a  different  direction, 
it  is  advisable  to  make  him  walk  backward,  until  he  evinces  a 
willingness  to  advance.  A  runaway  might,  in  many  instances,  be 
cured  of  his  vice  by  his  being  suffered  to  gallop,  unchecked,  and 
being  urged  forward  when  he  showed  an  inclination  to  abate  his 
speed,  rather  than  by  attempting  to  pull  him  in:  but  this  remedy 
is,  in  most  situations,  dangerous,  even  for  men;  and  all  other 
means  should  be  tried  before  it  is  resorted  to  by  the  rider.  Should 
either  of  our  fair  readers, — "  which  the  fates  forefend!" — have  the 
misfortune  to  be  mounted  on  a  runaway,  she  may  avoid  any  evil 
consequences,  if  she  can  contrive  to  retain  her  self-possession,  and 
act  as  we  are  about  to  direct: — she  must  endeavour  to  main- 
tain her  seat  at  all  hazards,  and  to  preserve  the  best  balance,  or 
position  of  body,  to  carry  her  defences  into  operation ;  the  least 
symptom  of  alarm,  on  her  part,  will  increase  the  terror  or  deter- 
mination of  the  horse;  a  dead,  heavy  pull  at  the  bridle  will  at 
once  aid,  rather  than  deter  him  in  his  speed,  and  prevent  her  from 
having  sufficient  mastery  over  his  mouth  and  her  own  hands  to 
guide  him ;  she  must,  therefore,  hold  the  reins  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  keep  die  horse  together  when  at  the  height  of  his  pace,  and 
to  guide  him  from  running  against  anything  in  his  course ;  and  it 
is  most  probable  that  he  will  soon  abate  his  speed,  and  gradually 
subside  into  a  moderate  pace.  Sawing  the  mouth  (that  is,  pulling 
each  rein  alternately)  will  frequently  bring  a  horse  up  in  a  few 
minutes;  slackening  the  reins  for  an  instant,  and  then  jerking 
them  with  force,  may  also  produce  a  similar  effect;  but  if  the 
latter  mode  be  adopted,  the  rider  must  take  care  that  the  horse, 
by  stopping  suddenly,  do  not  bring  her  on  his  neck,  or  throw  her 
over  his  head.  In  whatever  manner  the  runaway  be  stopped,  it 
is  advisable  to  be  on  the  alert,  lest  he  should  become  so  disunited 
by  the  operation,  as  to  fall.  Our  reader  will  here  think,  perhaps, 
that  all  this  advice  may  be  easy  enough  to  give,  but  difficult  to 
follow ;  we  beg  leave,  however,  to  tell  her,  that  although  it  is  not 
so  easy  as  drawing  on  a  worn  glove,  or  replacing  a  stray  curl,  it 
is  much  more  practicable  than  she  may  imagine ;  but  we  trust  she 
will  never  have  occasion  to  put  it  to  the  proof. 

There  is  another  situation,  in  which  it  is  advisable  to  force  the 
horse  apparently  to  have  his  own  way,  in  order  to  baffle  his 
attacks.  Restive  horses,  or  even  docile  animals,  when  put  out  of 


442  RIDING. 

temper,  sometimes  endeavour  to  crush  their  riders'  legs  against 
walls,  gates,  trees,  posts,  &c.  An  inexperienced  rider,  in  such  a 
situation,  would  strive  to  pull  the  horse  away:  her  exertions  would 
be  unavailing ;  the  animal  would  feel  that  he  could  master  the  oppo- 
sition, and  thus  discovering  the  rider's  weakness,  turn  it  to  her 
disadvantage  on  future  occasions.  We  cannot  too  often  repeat,  that 
although  a  rider  should  not  desist  until  she  have  subdued  her  horse, 
she  must  never  enter  into  an  open,  undisguised  contest  with  him. 
It  is  useless  to  attack  him  on  a  point  which  he  is  resolute  in  de- 
fending; the  assault  should  rather  be  directed  to  his  weaker  side 
If  he  fortify  himself  in  one  place,  he  must  proportionally  diminish 
his  powers  of  defence  in  another:  he  anticipates  and  prepares  to 
resist  any  attempt  to  overcome  him  on  his  strong  side,  and  his 
astonishment  at  being  attacked  on  the  other,  and  with  success,  on 
account  of  his  weakness  in  that  quarter,  goes  far  to  dishearten  and 
subdue  him.  If  he  plant  himself  in  a  position  of  resistance  against 
being  forced  to  advance,  it  is  a  matter  of  very  little  difficulty  to 
make  him  go  back.  If  he  appear  to  be  determined  not  to  go  to 
the  right,  the  rider  may,  on  account  of  the  mode  in  which  he  dis- 
poses his  body  and  limbs,  with  great  facility  turn  him  to  the  left. 
If  he  stand  stock-still,  and  will  not  move  in  any  direction,  his 
crime  may  be  made  his  punishment:  the  rider  should  sit  patiently 
until  he  show  a  disposition  to  advance,  which  he  will  probably  do 
in  a  very  short  time,  when  he  discovers  that  she  is  not  annoyed  by 
his  standing  still.  Nothing  will  subdue  a  horse  so  soon  as  this 
mode  of  turning  his  attacks  against  himself,  and  making  his  de- 
fences appear  acts  of  obedience  to  the  rider's  inclination.  When, 
therefore,  a  horse  viciously  runs  on  one  side  towards  a  Avail,  pull 
his  head  forcibly  towards  it ;  and  if,  by  the  aid  of  the  leg  or  whip, 
you  can  drive  his  croupe  out,  you  may  succeed  in  backing  him 
completely  away  from  it.  It  is  by  no  means  improbable,  that 
when  he  finds  that  his  rider  is  inclined  to  go  to  the  wall  as  well  as 
himself,  he  will  desist ;  should  he  not,  his  croupe  may  be  so  turned 
outward,  that  he  cannot  do  his  rider  any  mischief. 

In  shying,  the  same  principle  may  be  acted  upon  more  advan- 
tageously, perhaps,  than  in  any  other  instance.  If  a  horse  be 
alarmed  at  any  object,  and,  instead  of  going  up  to  or  passing  it, 
he  turn  round,  the  rider  should  manage  him  in  the  manner 
recommended  in  cases  where  the  horse  turns  through  restiveness ; 
he  should  then  be  soothed  and  encouraged,  rather  than  urged  by 
correction,  to  approach  or  pass  the  object  that  alarms  him:  to 
attempt  to  force  him  up  to  it  would  be  ridiculous  and  dangerous. 


RIDING.  443 

If  the  horse  swerve  from  an  object,  and  try  to  pass  it  at  a  brisk 
rate,  it  is  useless  to  pull  him  towards  it;  for  if  you  succeed  in 
bringing  his  head  on  one  side,  his  croupe  will  be  turned  outward, 
and  his  legs  work  in  an  opposite  direction:  this  resistance  will 
increase  proportionally  to  the  exertions  made  by  the  rider.  A 
horse,  in  this  manner,  may  fly  from  imaginary  into  real  danger; 
for  he  cannot  see  where  he  is  going,  nor  what  he  may  run  against. 
Pulling  in  the  rein,  therefore,  on  the  side  from  which  the  horse 
shies,  is  improper;  it  should  rather  be  slackened,  and  the  horse's 
head  turned  away  from  the  object  which  terrifies  him:  by  this 
mode,  a  triple  advantage  is  gained:  in  the  first  place,  the  horse's 
attention  is  diverted  to  other  things ;  secondly, — the  dreaded  object 
loses  half  its  terrors  when  he  finds  no  intention  manifested  on  the 
rider's  part  to  force  him  nearer  to  it;  and,  lastly, — he  is  enabled 
to  see,  and,  consequently,  avoid  any  danger  in  front,  or  on  the 
other  side  of  him. 

A  horse  may  be  coaxed  and  encouraged  to  go  up  to  the  object 
that  alarms  him;  and  if  the  rider  succeed  in  making  him  approach 
it,  a  beneficial  effect  will  be  produced;  the  horse  will  discover 
that  his  fears  were  groundless,  and  be  less  likely  to  start  again 
from  any  similar  cause.  After  the  first  impulse  of  terror  has 
subsided,  the  horse,  if  he  be  properly  managed,  will  even  ma- 
nifest an  inclination  to  approach  and  examine  the  object  that 
alarmed  him;  but  while  he  is  so  doing,  the  rider  must  be  on  her 
guard;  for  the  least  movement,  or  timidity,  on  her  part, — the 
rustling  of  a  leaf,  or  the  passing  of  a  shadow, — will,  in  all  proba- 
bility, frighten  him  again,  and  he  will  start  round  more  violently 
than  before.  After  this,  it  will  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  bring 
him  up  to  the  object.  Mr.  Astley,  however,  whom  we  have  before 
quoted,  says,  that  should  the  first  trial  prove  unsuccessful,  it 
must  be  repeated,  until  you  succeed;  observing,  that  the  second 
attempt  should  not  be  made  until  the  horse's  fears  have  subsided, 
and  his  confidence  has  returned.  A  horse  that  is  rather  shy  may, 
in  many  cases,  be  prevented  from  starting,  by  the  rider  turning 
his  head  a  little  away  from  those  objects,  which  she  knows  by  ex- 
perience are  likely  to  alarm  him,  as  well  before  she  approaches 
as  while  she  passes  them. 

A  lady,  certainly,  should  not  ride  any  horse  that  is  addicted  to 
shying,  stumbling,  rearing,  or  any  other  vice;  but.  she  ought, 
nevertheless,  to  be  prepared  against  their  occurrence;  for,  how- 
ever careful  and  judicious  those  persons,  by  whom  her  horse  is 
selected,  may  be,  and  however  long  a  trial  she  may  have  had  of 


444  RIDING. 

his  temper  and  merits,  she  cannot  be  sure,  when  she  takes  the 
reins,  that  she  may  not  have  to  use  her  defences  against  rearing 
or  kicking,  or  be  required  to  exercise  her  skill  to  save  herself 
from  the  dangers  attendant  on  starting  or  stumbling  before  she 
dismounts.  The  quietest  horse  may  exhibit  symptoms  of  vice,  even 
without  any  apparent  cause,  after  years  of  good  behaviour ;  the 
best-tempered  are  not  immaculate,  nor  the  surest-footed  infallible: 
it  is  wise,  therefore,  to  be  prepared  against  frailty  or  accident. 

Stumbling  is  not  only  unpleasant,  but  dangerous;  to  ride  a 
horse  that  is  apt  to  trip,  is  like  dwelling  in  a  ruin:  we  cannot  be 
comfortable  if  we  feel  that  we  are  unsafe;  and,  truly,  there  is  no 
safety  on  the  back  of  a  stumbling  nag.  The  best  advice  we  can  offer 
our  readers  as  to  such  an  animal,  is,  never  to  ride  him  after  his 
demerits  are  discovered;  although  the  best  horse  in  the  world 
may,  we  must  confess,  make  a  false  step,  and  even  break  his 
knees.  When  a  horse  trips,  his  head  should  be  raised  and  sup- 
ported, by  elevating  the  hand ;  and  the  lady  should  instantly  throw 
herself  back,  so  as  to  relieve  his  shoulders  of  her  weight.  It  is 
useless  to  whip  a  horse  after  stumbling,  (as  it  is  also  after  shying;) 
for  it  is  clear  he  would  not  run  the  risk  of  breaking  his  knees,  or 
his  nose,  if  he  could  help  it.  If  a  horse  be  constantly  punished 
for  stumbling,  the  moment  he  has  recovered  from  a  false  step,  he 
will  start  forward,  flurried  and  disunited,  in  fear  of  the  whip,  and 
not  only  put  the  rider  to  inconvenience,  but  run  the  risk  of  a  re- 
petition of  his  mishap  before  he  regains  his  self-possession.  It 
being  generally  the  practice, — and  a  very  bad  practice  it  is, — for 
riders  to  correct  horses  for  stumbling,  we  may  discover  an  habitual 
from  an  occasional  stumbler,  by  this  circumstance ;  namely, — when 
a  horse,  that  is  tolerably  safe,  makes  a  false  step,  he  gathers  him- 
self up,  and  is  slightly  animated  for  a  moment  or  two  only,  or 
goes  on  as  if  nothing  had  happened ;  but  if  he  be  an  old  offender, 
he  will  remember  the  punishment  he  has  repeatedly  received  im- 
mediately after  a  stumble,  and  dash  forward  in  the  manner  we 
have  described,  expecting  the  usual  accompaniment  to  his  mis- 
fortune. 

When  a  horse  evinces  any  disposition  to  kick,  or  rear,  the 
reins  should  be  separated  and  held  in  both  hands,  in  the  manner 
we  have  described  in  a  previous  page.  This  should  also  be 
done  when  he  attempts  to  run  away,  grows  restive,  or  shies. 
The  body  should  also  be  put  in  its  proper  balance  for  performing 
the  defences:  it  should  be  upright,  the  shoulders  thrown  back, 
the  waist  brought  forward,  and  the  head  kept  steady.  Every 


RIDING. 


445 


part  of  the  frame  must  be  flexible,  but  perfectly  ready  for  action. 
The  danger  attendant  on  the  horse's  rearing  is,  that  the  rider  may 

fall  off  over  the  croupe, 
or  pull  the  horse  back- 
ward upon  her.  To 
prevent  either  of  these 
consequences,  immedi- 
ately a  horse  rises,  slack- 
en the  reins,  and  bend 
the  body  forward,  so  as 
to  throw  its  weight  on 
his  shoulders  (Fig.  9) ; 
and  the  moment  his  fore 
feet  come  to  the  ground, 
— having  recovered  your 
position  gradually  as  he 
descends, — correct  him 
smartly,  if  he  will  bear  it ;  or  endeavour  to  pull  him  round  two  or 
three  times,  and  thus  divert  him  from  his  object:  the  latter  course 
may  also  be  adopted  to  prevent  his  rearing,  if  the  rider  can  foresee 
his  intention.  We  have  made  some  other  observations  on  this 
subject  in  a  preceding  page,  to  which  we  beg  to  refer  our  reader. 

A   horse   that   displays  any  symptoms  of  kicking,   should  be 
held  tight  in  hand:    if  his  head  be  kept  up,  he  cannot  do  much 
mischief  with  his  heels.      If,  however,  when  the  rider   is  unpre- 
10  pared,  in   spite    of    her 

exertions,  he  should  get 
his  head  down,  she  must 
endeavour,  by  means  of 
the  reins,  to  prevent  the 
animal  from  throwing 
himself  down,  and  also 
by  a  proper  inclination 
of  her  body  backward, 
save  herself  from  being 
thrown  forward  (Fig. 10). 
If  the  least  opportunity 
should  occur,  she  must 
try  to  give  him  two  or 
three  sharp  turns:  this 

may  also  be  done  with  advantage,  if  she  detect  any  incipient  at- 
tempts in  the  animal  to  kick.      A  horse  that  rears  high  seldom  kicks 


446  RIDING. 

much,  but  he  may  do  both  alternately;  and  the  rider  should  be 
prepared  against  his  attempts,  by  keeping  her  balance  in  readiness 
for  either  of  the  corresponding  defences.  She  must  also  take  care, 
that  while  she  is  holding  her  horse's  head  up,  and  well  in  hand,  to 
prevent  him  from  kicking,  she  do  not  cause  him  to  rear,  by  too 
great  a  degree  of  pressure  on  his  mouth.  It  is  proper  to  observe, 
that  if  a  horse  be  chastised  for  either  of  these  vices,  the  whip 
should  be  applied  to  the  shoulder  for  kicking,  and  behind  the 
saddle  for  rearing ;  but  we  must  needs  remark,  that  correction  on 
the  shoulder  is,  in  some  degree,  likely  to  make  a  kicking  horse 
rear;  and  on  the  flank,  or  hind  quarters,  to  make  a  rearing  horse 
kick.  The  rider,  however,  cannot  do  better,  under  the  circum- 
stances, than  to  correct  the  positive  evil,  notwithstanding  the 
possible  consequences,  in  the  manner  we  have  directed. 

EXERCISES  IN  THE  PACES,  &c. 

Although  our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  enter  into  an  ela- 
borate detail  of  the  lessons  taken  by  a  pupil  in  the  riding-school, 
it  is  right  that  we  should  give  the  learner  a  few  useful  hints  on  the 
rudiments  of  Riding,  and  not  devote  our  whole  space  to  the  im- 
provement of  those  who  have  made  considerable  progress*  While 
we  endeavour  to  correct  bad  habits  in  the  self-taught  artist, — in  the 
pupil  of  a  kind  friend,  an  affectionate  relative,  or  of  a  mere  groom, 
— to  confirm  the  regularly-educated  equestrian  in  the  true  prin- 
ciples and  practice  of  the  art, — to  remind  her  of  what  she  has 
forgotten,  and  to  improve  upon  the  knowledge  she  may  have 
acquired, — we  must  not  forget  those  among  our  young  friends, 
who,  having  never  mounted  a  horse,  are  desirous  of  learning  how 
to  ride  with  grace  and  propriety,  and  who  dwell  at  a  distance,  or 
do  not  feel  inclined  to  take  lessons  from  a  master.  To  such,  one- 
third,  at  least,  of  our  preceding  observations  are  applicable;  and 
we  recommend  an  attentive  perusal  of  what  we  have  said,  as  to 
mounting,  the  aids,  the  balance,  position,  &c.  before  they  aspire 
to  the  saddle.  Our  other  remarks  they  will  find  useful  when 
they  have  acquired  a  little  practice. 

A  quiet  and  well-trained  horse,  and  a  careful  attendant,  should, 
if  possible,  be  procured.  A  horse,  that  knows  his  duty,  will  almost 
instruct  his  rider ;  and  if  a  friend,  who  is  accustomed  to  horses, 
or  a  careful  servant,  accompany  the  pupil,  there  is  little  or  nothing 
to  fear,  even  in  the  first  attempts:  the  friend,  or  groom,  may  also, 
by  his  advice,  materially  assist  the  learner  in  her  progress. 


RIDING. 


447 


It  would  be  needless  for  us  to  repeat  our  advice  as  to  the 
manner  of  mounting,  holding  the  reins,  making  the  horse  advance, 
stop,  turn,  &c.  or  the  proper  disposition  of  the  body  and  limbs: 
all  these,  in  her  early  lessons,  the  pupil  should  gradually  practice. 


Let  the  pupil  walk  the  horse  forward  in  a  straight  line,  and  at  a 
slow  rate,  supporting  his  head  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  him 

keep  time  in  the  beats 
of  his  pace ;  but  not  hold- 
ing the  reins  so  tight  as 
to  retard  the  measure- 
ment of  his  steps,  or  to 
make  him  break  into  a 
trot  on  being  animated 
(Fig.  11.)  The  hand 
should  be  so  carried, 
that  it  may  delicately, 
but  distinctly,  feel,  by 
the  operation  of  the 
horse's  mouth  on  the 
reins,  every  beat  of  his 
action.  If  he  do  not  ex- 
ert himself  sufficiently, 
he  must  be  slightly  animated.  Should  he  break  into  a  trot,  he 
must  be  checked  by  the  reins;  but  the  pull  must  neither  be  so 
firm  or  continued  as  to  make  him  stop.  The  moment  he  obeys 
the  rein  and  drops  into  a  walk,  the  hand  is  to  be  relaxed  into  its 
previous  position.  Should  he  require  animating  again,  the  move- 
ment for  that  purpose  must  be  more  gentle  than  before,  lest  he 
once  more  break  into  a  trot. 

After  walking  in  a  straight  line  for  a  short  time,  the  pupil 
should  practice  the  turn  to  the  right  and  to  the  left;  alternately 
using  both  hands  in  these  operations,  in  the  manner  directed  in  a 
previous  page.  She  must  observe,  that  when  she  pulls  the  right 
rein  to  turn  the  horse  on  that  side,  the  other  hand  must  be  relaxed 
and  lowered,  or  advanced,  to  slacken  the  left  rein  and  ease  the 
horse's  mouth,  and  vice  versA. 

If  the  horse  will  not  readily  obey  the  hand  in  turning,  or  do  not 
bring  forward  his  croupe  sufficiently,  he  is  to  be  urged  to  throw 
himself  more  on  the  bit,  by  an  animation  of  the  leg  or  whip.  The 


448  RIDING. 

animations,  during  the  first  lessons,  should  be  commenced  with 
great  gentleness,  and  the  rider  will  easily  discover,  by  a  little  ex- 
perience, to  what  degree  it  is  necessary  to  increase  them,  in  order 
to  procure  obedience.  This  observation  should  be  attended  to, 
were  it  only  for  the  pupil's  safety;  for  if  she  begin  with  her  ani- 
mations above  the  horse's  spirit,  his  courage  will  be  so  raised  as  to 
endanger,  or,  at  least,  alarm  her;  and  thus  render  what  would 
otherwise  be  an  agreeable  exercise,  unpleasant. 

After  the  pupil  has  practised  walking  in  a  straight  line,  and 
turning  on  either  side,  for  a  few  days,  she  may  walk  in  a  circle, 
and  soon  make  her  horse  wheel,  change,  demi-volt,  &c.  The 
circle  should  be  large  at  first;  but  when  the  pupil  has  acquired  her 
proper  equilibrium,  &c.  it  must,  day  by  day,  be  gradually  con- 
tracted. 

In  riding  round  a  circle,  the  inner  rein  is  to  be  rather  lowered, 
and  the  body  inclined  inward:  this  inclination  must  be  increased 
during  succeeding  lessons,  as  the  circle  is  contracted,  and  the  pupil 
quickens  the  pace  of  her  horse,  She  must  practice  in  the  large 
circle,  until  she  is  able,  by  her  hand  and  aids,  to  make  the  horse 
perform  it  correctly.  The  inside  rein  must  be  delicately  acted 
upon:  if  it  be  jerked  at  distant  intervals,  or  borne  upon  without 
intermission,  the  horse,  in  the  former  case,  will  swerve  in  and  out, 
and  in  the  latter,  the  rider's  hand  and  the  animal's  mouth  will 
both  become  in  some  degree  deadened;  and  thus  their  corres- 
pondence will  be  decreased.  In  order  to  procure  correct  action, 
the  inner  rein  should  be  alternately  borne  on  in  a  very  slight 
degree,  and  relaxed  the  next  instant, — the  hand  keeping  exact 
time  in  its  operations  with  the  cadence  of  the  horse's  feet.  The 
direction  is  to  be  frequently  changed ; — the  pupil  alternately  work- 
ing to  the  right  and  the  left,  so  as  to  bring  both  her  hands  into 
practice. 

As  soon  as  the  rider  becomes  tolerably  well  confirmed  in  her 
seat  and  balance,  and  in  the  performance  of  the  simple  aids  and 
animations,  as  well  in  large  as  small  circles,  she  should  begin  to 
ride  in  double  circles, — at  first,  of  considerable  diameter,  but 
decreasing  them  by  degrees  as  she  improves.  Riding  in  double 
circles,  is  guiding  the  horse  to  perform  a  figure  of  8;  and  this,  in 
the  language  of  the  riding-school,  is  effecting  the  large  and  narrow 
change,  according  to  the  size  of  the  circles.  The  number  of  the 
circles  may  be  increased,  and  the  sizes  varied,  with  great  advan- 
tage, both  to  the  rider  and  the  horse.  They  may  be  at  some 
distance  from  each  other,  and  the  horse  be  guided  to  work  from  one 


RIDING. 


449 


to  the  other  diagonally.  Thus,  suppose  he  starts  from  a,  (Fig.  12,) 
he  may  be  made  to  leave  the  upper  circle  at  e,  and  enter  the 
lower  one  at  d;  leave  it  at  c,  and  enter  the  first 
again  at  6;  and  so  continue  for  some  time :  then 
begin  at/,  quit  the  lower  circle  at  c,  enter  the 
upper  one  at  6,  leave  it  at  e,  and  enter  the  lower 
circle  again  at  d.  Thus  the  position  of  the  rider 
and  horse  are  alternately  changed,  from  working 
from  the  right  to  a  straight  line,  thence  to  the  left, 
thence  to  a  straight  line,  and  thence  again  to  the 
right. — To  give  an  instance  of  riding  in  a  greater 
number  of  circles,  of  different  diameters,  let  the 
horse  start  from  a,  (Fig.  13,)  and  leave  the  upper 
circle  at  6,  traversing  to  the  outer  small  circle 
at  c,  passing  round  by  d,  entering  the  inner  circle 
at  c,  passing  round  by  fto  g,  quitting  it  at  g", 
and  entering  the  lower  circle  at  h;  quitting  the  latter  again,  after 
passing  round  i,  at  A:,  and  thence  proceeding  toward  the  outer  small 
circle,  entering  at  /,  going  round  and  entering 
the  inner  circle  at  e,  passing  round  by  g*,  quitting 
it  at/,  to  return  again  to  a  by  entering  the  upper 
circle  at  m.  These  exercises  may  be  diversified 
in  various  ways:  the  pupil,  for  instance,  may 
perform  the  upper  circle,  and  one  or  both  of 
the  lower  ones,  return  to  the  upper  circle,  cross 
from  that,  diagonally,  to  the  lower  circle,  quit  it 
at  h  or  k  to  perform  one  of  the  middle  circles, 
return  to  the  lower  circle  again,  pass  thence  to 
the  other  middle  circle,  and  quit  it  at  c  or  /  (as  the 
case  may  happen)  to  return  to  the  upper  circle 
again.  Nothing  can  be  more  beneficial  than  this 
variety  of  action :  it  tends  at  once  to  confirm  the 
pupil  in  her  seat;  to  exercise  her  in  her  balance 
and  aids;  and  to  render  the  horse  obedient;  but 
if  he  lie  kept  in  only  one  direction,  he  will  per- 
form the  figure  mechanically,  without  either  improving  his  own 
mouth  and  action,  or  the  rider's  hand,  aids,  or  balance. 

In  horsemanship,  working  on  a  circle  is  called  a  volt;  in 
angles,  or  a  zig-zag  direction,  changes  reverse;  and  on  half  a 
circle  from  a  line,  a  demi-volt.  These  figures  may  first  be  per- 
formed separately:  but  there  can  be  no  objection  to  the  demi-volt 
and  changes  reverse  to  be  afterwards  embodied  into  the  exercises 


450 


RIDING. 


on  circles.  As  in  the  last  figure,  the  pupil  may  work  from  a 
(Fig.  14,)  as  directed,  for  some  time;  then  perform  the  variations, 
by  going  across  from  a  to  b,  and  describe  a  demi- 
volt  round  by  c  e  to  a;  then  return  from  a  to  6,  and 
work  a  demi-volt,  in  an  opposite  direction,  from  b 
to  a:  thence  the  pupil  may  proceed  in  a  line,  enter 
the  lower  circle  at  d,  and  recommence  riding  in 
circles.  The  change  reverse  may  at  any  time 
be  performed,  by  quitting  the  upper  circle  at  e  or 
y,and  working  on  the  traversing  lines,  so  as  to  cross 
the  lower  circle  at  g  or  h .  and  enter  it  at  i  or  k.  In 
fact,  these  exercises  may  be  varied  ad  libitum; 
and  the  more  they  are  diversified,  the  greater  ad- 
vantage the  pupil  will  derive  from  them,  provided 
she  persevere  until  she  can  perform  one  figure  with 
accuracy,  before  she  enter  upon  another  that  is 
more  complicated.  Should  the  horse,  in  changing,  yield  his  head, 
but  withhold  his  croupe  so  as  to  destroy  the  union  of  his  action, 
or  mar  the  perfection  of  the  change,  the  rider  should  bring  it  to 
the  proper  position,  or  sequence,  by  an  aid  of  the  whip  or  leg,  as 
the  case  may  be. 


TROTTING. 

The  pupil  should  begin  to  practise  the  trot  (Fig.  15)  as  soon 

as  she  is  tolerably  per- 
fect in  the  walking  les- 
sons. It  will  be  as  well 
for  her,  at  first,  to  trot 
in  a  straight  line;  she 
may  then  work  in  the 
large  circle,  and  proceed 
gradually  through  most 
of  the  figures  which  she 
has  performed  in  a  walk. 
To  make  the  horse  ad- 
vance from  a  walk  to 
a  trot,  the  fore -hand 
should  be  slightly  ele- 
vated, by  drawing  upwards  the  little  finger  of  each  hand  (or  that 
of  the  left  hand  only,  when  the  pupil  has  advanced  enough  to 
hold  the  reins  in  one  hand,)  and  turning  them  toward  the  body. 


RIDING. 


451 


An  animation  of  the  leg  and  whip  should  accompany  this  motion. 
The  trot  should  be  commenced  moderately:  if  the  horse  start 
off  too  rapidly,  or  increase  the  pace  beyond  the  rider's  inclina- 
tion, she  must  check  him,  by  closing  the  hands  firmly;  and  if 
that  will  not  suffice,  by  drawing  the  little  fingers  upward  and 
toward  the  body :  this  must  not  be  done  with  a  jerk,  but  deli- 
cately and  gradually;  and  as  soon  as  the  proper  effect  is  pro- 
duced, the  reins  are  again  to  be  slackened.  If  the  horse  do  not 
advance  with  sufficient  speed,  or  do  not  bring  up  his  haunches 
well,  the  animations  used  at  starting  him  are  to  be  repeated. 
When  the  horse  proceeds  to  the  trot,  the  pupil  must  endeavour  to 
preserve  her  balance,  steadiness,  and  pliancy,  as  in  the  walk. 
The  rise  in  trotting  is  to  be  acquired  by  practice.  When  the  horse 
in  his  action  raises  the  rider  from  her  seat,  she  should  advance  her 
body,  and  rest  a  considerable  portion  of  her  weight  on  the  right 
knee;  by  means  of  which,  and  by  bearing  the  left  foot  on  the 
stirrup,  she  may  return  to  her  former  position  without  being 
jerked:  the  right  knee  and  the  left  foot,  used  in  the  same  manner, 
will  also  ease  her  in  the  rise.  Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to 
the  general  position  of  the  body  while  trotting:  in  this  pace, 
ordinary  riders  frequently  rise  to  the  left,  which  is  a  very  bad 
practice,  and  must  positively  be  avoided.  The  lady  should  also 
take  care  not  to  raise  herself  too  high;  the  closer  she  maintains 
her  seat,  consistently  with  her  own  comfort,  the  more  correct-  her 
appearance  will  be. 

CANTERING. 

The  whole  of  the  exercises  in  circles  should  next  be  performed 
in  a  canter,  which  may  be  commenced  from  a  short,  but  animated 
trot,  a  walk,  or  even  a  stop.  If  the  horse  be  well  trained,  a  slight 
pressure  of  the  whip  and  leg,  and  an  elevation  of  the  horse's  head, 
by  means  of  the  reins,  will  make  him  strike  into  a  canter.  Should 
he  misunderstand,  or  disobey  these  indications  of  the  rider's  will, 
by  merely  increasing  his  walk  or  trot,  or  going  into  the  trot  from 
a  walk,  as  the  case  may  be,  he  is  to  be  pressed  forward  on  the  bit 
by  an  increased  animation  of  the  leg  arid  whip; — the  reins,  at  the 
same  time,  being  held  more  firmly,  in  order  to  restrain  him  from 
advancing  too  rapidly  forward  to  bring  his  haunches  under  him; 
for  the  support  of  which  in  this  position,  he  will  keep  both  his 
hind  feet  for  a  moment  on  the  ground,  while  he  commences  the 
canter  by  raising  his  fore  feet  together. 
38* 


RIDING. 


The  Canter  (Fig.  16)  is  the  most  elegant  and  agreeable  of  all 
the  paces,  when  properly  performed  by  the  horse  and  rider; — its 

perfection  consists  in  its 
union  and  animation,  ra- 
ther than  its  speed.  It 
is  usual  with  learners, 
who  practise  without  a 
master,  to  begin  the 
canter  previously  to  the 
trot;  but  we  are  sup- 
ported by  good  authority 
in  recommending,  that 
the  pupil  should  first 
practise  the  trot,  as  it  is 
certainly  much  better  cal- 
culated to  strengthen  and  confirm  her  in  the  balance,  seat,  &c. 
than  the  canter. 

The  pupil  is  advised,  at  this  stage  of  her  progress,  to  practise 
the  paces,  alternately,  in  the  various  combinations  of  the  figures 
we  have  described :  performing  her  aids  with  greater  power  and 
accuracy  in  turning  and  working  in  circles,  when  trotting  or 
cantering,  than  when  walking.  She  should  also  perfect  herself  in 
her  aids,  the  correspondence,  and  balance,  by  alternately  increas- 
ing and  diminishing  the  speed  in  each  pace,  until  she  attains  a 
perfect  mastery  over  herself  and  her  horse,  and  can  not  only 
make  him  work  in  what  direction  and  at  what  pace,  but  also  at 
what  degree  of  speed  in  each  pace,  she  pleases.  She  may  extend 
the  canter  to  a  gallop; — learn  how  to  ascertain,  by  the  motion  of 
the  horse,  if  his  canter  be  false  or  true,  and  acquire  the  means  of 
making  him  rectify  his  action.  In  cantering,  the  horse  ought  to 
lead  with  the  right  foot:  should  he  strike  off  with  the  left,  the 
rider  must  either  check  him  to  a  walk,  and  then  make  him  com- 
mence the  canter  again,  or  induce  him  to  advance  the  proper  leg 
by  means  of  the  near  rein,  pressing  his  side  with  the  left  leg,  and 
touching  the  right  shoulder  with  the  whip.  The  hind  legs  should 
follow  the  direction  of  the  fore  legs,  otherwise  the  pace  is  untrue, 
disunited,  and  unpleasant,  both  to  the  horse  and  rider:  therefore, 
if  the  horse  lead  with  his  near  fore  leg  (unless  when  cantering  to 
the  left, — the  only  case  when  the  near  legs  should  be  advanced,) 
or  with  his  near  hind  leg,  except  in  the  case  just  mentioned, — 
although  he  may  lead  with  the  proper  fore  leg, — the  pace  is  false, 
and  must  be  rectified. 


RIDING. 


453 


STOPPING. 

The  pupil  must  also  learn  how  to  perform  the  perfect  stop  in 
all  the  paces.  The  perfect  stop  in  the  walk,  is  a  cessation  of 

all  action  in  the  animal, 
produced  instantaneous- 
ly by  the  rider,  without 
any  previous  intimation 
being  given  to  the  horse 
(Fig.  17.)  The  slovenly 
stop  is  gradual  and  un- 
certain ;  the  incorrect 
stop  is  a  momentary  and 
violent  check  on  the  ac- 
tion in  the  middle,  in- 
stead of  the  conclusion, 
of  the  cadence:  while 
its  first  part  is  coming 
to  the  ground,  the  proper  movements  should  be  performed  by  the 
rider,  so  that  it  may  conclude  correctly  with  the  cadence.  The 
firmness  of  the  hand  should  be  increased,  the  body  be  thrown 
back,  the  reins  drawn  to  the  body,  and  the  horse's  haunches 
pressed  forward  by  the  leg  and  whip,  so  that  he  may  be  brought 
to  bear  on  the  bit. 

The  stop  in  the  trot  is  performed  as  in  the  walk:  the  rider 
should  operate  when  the  leading  legs  have  come  to  the  ground, 
so  that  the  stop  be  perfected  when  the  other  fore  and  hind  legs 
advance  and  complete  the  cadence. 

The  stop  in  the  canter  is  performed  by  the  rider  in  a  similar 
manner:  the  time  should  be  at  the  instant  when  the  horse's  fore 
feet  are  descending; — the  hind  feet  will  immediately  follow,  and  at 
once  conclude  the  stop  and  cadence.  The  rider  must  bear  in  mind, 
that  in  order  to  make  the  stop  perfect,  the  horse  should  previously 
l^e  animated,  united,  and  correct,  in  the  beats  or  time  of  his  pace. 
In  an  extended  canter,  or  a  gallop,  it  is  advisable  to  reduce  the 
horse  to  a  short  trot,  prior  to  stopping  him,  or  to  perform  the  stop 
by  a  double  arret; — that  is,  in  two  cadences  instead  of  one.  Stop- 
ping or  turning  too  suddenly  in  the  gallop,  is  very  distressing  to 
the  horse  as  well  as  unsafe  to  the  rider ;  in  fact,  the  pace  itself  is 
rather  too  violent  and  exceptionable,  in  many  respects,  for  a  lady 
to  ride. 


OF  THF 

UNIVERSITY 


454  RIDING. 


It  is  necessary  that  the  pupil  should  learn  how  to  make  a  horse 
back  in  walking:  to  do  this,  the  reins  are  to  be  drawn  equally  and 
steadily  towards  the  body  (but  yielded  to  him,  when  he  obeys,) 
and  his  croupe  is  to  be  kept  in  a  proper  direction  by  means  of  the 
leg  and  whip. 

The  pupil  should  perform  her  first  lessons  with  a  snaffle  bridle, 
holding  the  reins  in  both  hands,  and  without  a  stirrup.  When 
she  has  acquired  some  degree  of  practice  in  the  balance,  aids,  and 
general  government  of  the  horse,  she  may  use  a  curb  with  double 
reins,  and  hold  them  in  the  left  hand, — managing  them  as  we 
have  directed  in  some  of  the  preceding  pages. 

It  would  be  well  for  the  self-taught  equestrian,  who  has  not 
acquired  the  true  principles  of  Riding,  to  go  through  all  the  fore- 
going exercises  in  the  paces,  patiently  and  progressively:  she 
will,  doubtless,  find  it  difficult  to  drop  her  incorrect  mode  of 
riding;  but  she  should  persevere,  if  she  wishes  to  sit  her  horse 
with  grace,  ease,  and  safety.  The  pupil,  in  all  cases,  should  re- 
collect, that  her  horse  requires  occasional  haltings  and  relaxation: 
the  time  occupied  in  each  lesson  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
pace  and  animation  in  which  it  has  been  performed.  If  the  exer- 
cise be  varied  and  highly-animated,  the  horse  should  rest  to 
recruit  himself  at  the  expiration  of  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes; 
when  refreshed  by  halting,  he  may  be  made  to  go  through  another 
of  the  same,  or  rather  less  duration,  and  then  be  put  up  for  the 
day:  it  would  be  still  better  to  make  two  halts  in  the  same  space 
of  time: — the  exercise  taken  in  such  a  lesson  being  equal  to  three 
hours'  moderate  work.  When  the  lessons  are  less  animated,  they 
may  be  made  proportionally  longer;  but  it  is  always  better,  if  the 
pupil  err  in  this  respect,  to  do  so  on  the  side  of  brevity,  than,  by 
making  her  lessons  too  long,  to  harass  her  horse,  and  fatigue 
herself  so  as  to  lose  her  spirit  and  animation. 

LEAPING. 

In  the  riding-schools,  ladies  who  never  intend  to  join  what  the 
poets  call  the  jocund  pack, 

By  copse  or  dingle,  heath  or  sheltering  wood, 

are  frequently  taught  to  leap  at  the  bar.      The  practice  is  beneficial, 
as    it   tends  to  confirm  the  seat,    and    to  enable  the  rider  more 


RIDING. 


455 


effectually  to  preserve  her  balance,  should  she  afterwards  be  mount- 
ed on  an  unsteady  or  vicious  horse. 

Leaps  are  taken  either  standing,  or  flying,  over  a  bar,  which  is 
so  contrived  as  to  fall  when  touched  by  the  horse's  feet,  if  he  do 
not  clear  it :  it  is  placed  at  a  short  distance  from  the  ground  at 
first,  and  raised  by  degrees  as  the  pupil  improves.  The  standing 
leap,  which  is  practised  first,  the  horse  takes  from  the  halt,  close 
to  the  bar.  The  flying  leap  is  taken  from  any  pace,  and  is  easier 
than  the  standing  leap,  although  the  latter  is  considered  the  safer 
of  the  two  to  begin  with;  as,  from  the  steadiness  with  which  it  is 
made  by  a  trained  horse,  the  master  or  assistant  can  aid  the 
pupil  at  the  slightest  appearance  of  danger. 

The  position  of  the  rider  is  to  be  governed  in  this,  as  in  all 
other  cases,  by  the  action  of  the  horse.  No  weight  is  to  be  borne 
on  the  stirrup ;  for,  in  fact,  pressure  on  the  stirrup  will  tend  to  raise 
the  body,  rather  than  keep  it  close  to  the  saddle.  The  legs  (par- 
ticularly the  right  one)  must  be  pressed  closely  against  the  saddle; 
is  and  the  hand  and  the 

reins  yielded  to  the 
horse,  so  that  the  rider 
can  just  distinguish  a 
slight  correspondence 
between  her  hand  and 
the  horse's  mouth.  The 
animations  thus  pro- 
duced, and  the  invita- 
tion thus  given,  will 
make  the  horse  rise.  As 
his  fore  quarters  ascend, 
the  lady  is  to  advance 
forward ;  the  back  being 
bent  inward,  and  the 
head  upright  and  steady  (Fig.  18,  the  ascent.)  As  soon  as  the 
horse's  hind  legs  quit  the  ground,  the  body  is  to  incline  backward, 
— the  rider  taking  care  not  to  bear  heavily  on  the  reins,  lest  the 
horse  force  her  hand,  and  pull  her  forward  on  his  neck,  or  over 
his  head,  as  he  descends.  When  the  leap  is  cleared,  the  rider 
should  bring  the  horse  together,  if  at  all  disunited,  and  resume 
her  previous  ordinary  position. 

In  the  flying  leap,  the  seat  is  to  be  preserved  as  in  the  standing 
leap;  except,  that  it  is  needless,  and  indeed  unwise,  to  advance 
the  body  as  the  horse  rises:  because,  in  the  flying  leap,  the  horse's 


456 


RIDING. 


position,  especially  in  a  low  leap,  is  more  horizontal  than  when  he 
rises  at  the  bar  from  a  halt  ;  and  there  is  great  danger  of  the  rider 
being  thrown,  if  she  lean  forward,  in  case  the  horse  suddenly 
check  himself  and  refuse  the  leap,  which  circumstance  occasionally 
happens.  The  waist  should  be  brought  forward,  and  the  body 

suffered  to  take  that 
inclination  backward 
which  will  be  pro- 
duced by  the  spring 
forward  of  the  horse. 
The  horse's  head  is 
to  be  guided  towards 
the  bar,  and  the  reins 
yielded  to  him  as  he 
advances.  The  pro- 
per distance  for  a 
horse  to  run  previous 
to  the  leap,  is  from 
ten  to  fifteen  yards. 
If  he  be  well  trained, 
he  may  be  suffered 
to  take  his  own  pace 
at  it;  but  it  is  necessary  to  animate  an  indolent  horse  into  a 
short,  collected  gallop,  and  urge  him  by  strong  aids  to  make  the 
leap.  (Fig.  19,  the  descent,) 


DISMOUNTING. 

Having  now  conducted  our  fair  readers  through  the  leading 
principles  of  Riding,  —  teaching  them,  as  well  as  our  humble  abili- 
ties would  permit,  how  to  enjoy  its  pleasures,  and  to  avoid  its 
perils,  —  it  only  remains  for  us  to  dismount  them  with  grace  and 
safety,  previously  to  laying  aside  our  pen. 

The  first  important  point  to  be  attended  to,  in  dismounting, 
is  the  perfect  disentanglement  of  the  clothes  from  the  saddle:  and 
before  the  lady  quits  it,  she  ought  to  bring  her  horse  carefully  to 
a  stop.  If  she  be  light  and  dexterous,  she  may  dismount  without 
assistance,  from  a  middle-sized  horse;  but  it  is  better  not  to  do  so  if 
the  animal  be  high.  The  right  hand,  in  preparing  to  dismount,  is 
to  receive  the  reins,  and  be  carried  to  the  off  crutch  of  the  pommel. 
The  reins  should  be  held  sufficiently  tight  to  restrain  the  horse 
from  advancing,  and  yet  not  so  firm  as  to  cause  him  to  back  or 


RIDING. 


457 


rear;   nor  uneven,  lest  it  make  him  swerve.     The   lady   should 
next  disengage  her  right  leg  from  the  pommel,  clearing  the  dress 
as  she  raises  her  knee ;   then  remove  her  right  hand  to  the  near 
20  crutch,  and  take  her  foot 

from  the  stirrup.  Thus  far 
the  process  is  the  same, 
whether  the  lady  dismount 
with  or  without  assistance. 
If  she  be  assisted,  the  gen- 
tleman, or  attendant,  may 
either  lift  her  completely  off 
the  saddle  to  the  ground, 
if  she  be  very  young ;  or, 
taking  her  left  hand  in  his 
left  hand,  place  his  right 
hand  on  her  waist,  and,  as 
she  springs  off,  support  her 
in  her  descent  (Fig.  20.) 
She  may  also  alight,  if  she  be  tolerably  active,  by  placing  her 
right  hand  in  that  of  the  gentleman,  who  in  this  case  stands  at 
the  horse's  shoulder,  and  descend  without  any  other  support. 
Should  there  be  any  objection  or  difficulty  found  in  alighting  by 
either  of  these  modes,  the  gentleman  or  assistant  may  place  himself 
immediately  in  front  of  the  lady,  who  is  then  to  incline  sufficiently 
forward  for  him  to  receive  her  weight,  by  placing  his  hands  under 
her  arms,  and  thus  easing  her  descent. 

If  the  lady    dismount  without  assistance,  after   the  hand    is 
21  carried  from  the  off  to  the 

near  crutch,  she  must  turn 
round  so  as  to  be  able  to 
take  in  her  left  hand  a  lock 
of  the  horse's  mane ;  by  the 
aid  of  which,  and  bearing 
her  right  on  the  crutch, 
she  may  alight  without  diffi- 
culty. In  dismounting  thus 
without  assistance,she  must 
[£..  turn  completely  round  as 
she  quits  the  saddle,  so  as  to 
alight  with  her  face  towards 
the  horse's  side  (Fig.  21.)  By  whatever  mode  the  lady  dismounts, 
but  especially  if  she  do  so  without  assistance,  to  prevent  any 


458  RIDING. 

unpleasant  shock  on  reaching  the  ground,  she  should  bend  her 
knees,  suffer  her  body  to  be  perfectly  pliant,  and  alight  on  her 
toes,  or  the  balls  of  her  feet.  She  is  neither  to  relinquish  her 
hold,  nor  is  the  gentleman,  or  assistant,  if  she  make  use  of  his 
ministry,  to  withdraw  his  hand,  until  she  is  perfectly  safe  on  the 
ground.  In  order  to  acquire  the  mode  of  dismounting  with  grace 
and  ease,  more  practice  is  required  than  merely  descending  from 
the  saddle  after  an  exercise  or  a  ride.  It  is  advisable  to  mount 
and  dismount,  for  some  days,  several  times  successively,  either 
before  or  after  the  ride;  commencing  with  the  most  simple  modes, 
until  the  pupil  acquires  sufficient  confidence  and  experience  to 
perform  either  of  these  operations  in  a  proper  manner,  with  the 
mere  help  of  the  assistant's  hand,  and  even  to  dismount  without 
any  aid  whatever.  If  she  be  but  in  her  noviciate  in  the  art  of 
Riding,  we  strongly  advise  her  in  this,  and  all  other  cases,  not  to 
place  too  great  a  reliance  on  her  own  expertness,  or  attempt  too 
much  at  first ;  but  rather  to  proceed  steadily,  and  be  satisfied  with 
a  gradual  improvement;  as  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  acquire 
perfection  in  the  nicer  operations  of  the  art,  before  the  minor 
difficulties  are  overcome. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


Here,  from  the  mould,  to  conscious  being  start 
Those  finer  forms,— the  miracles  of  art ; 
Here  chosen  gems,  imprest  on  sulphur,  shine, 
That  slept  for  ages  in  a  second  mine. 

RTICLES  of  utility  as  well  as  ornament,  in 
a  number  of  elegant  forms,  constructed  of 
several  kinds  of  light  materials,  and  variously 
embellished  by  the  hands  of  young  ladies,  so 
frequently,  now-a-days,  decorate  the  cabinet, 
the  work-table  and  the  boudoir,  affording  at 
ST'SS^  once  such  means  of  graceful  occupation,  and 
opportunities  for  the  display  of  good  taste  and  dexterity  in  many 
interesting  arts,  that  our  work  might  be  considered  incomplete, 
if  we  did  not  devote  a  portion  of  its  pages  to  some  interesting 
subjects  of  this  nature.  It  is  our  intention,  therefore,  under  the 
general  head  of  the  Ornamental  Artist,  to  describe  the  process  of 
modelling  in  wax,  clay,  paper,  pasteboard,  glass,  sulphur,  &c. 
the  modes  of  painting  on  velvet,  glass,  &c.  and  of  making  screens, 
baskets,  and  other  ornaments,  of  feathers,  beads,  straw,  alum, 
lavender,  gold  thread,  &c.  In  one  of  Miss  Edgeworth's  works 
there  is  a  pleasing  account  given  of  a  pasteboard  tray,  constructed 
by  some  young  persons,  and  divided  into  compartments  for  the 
reception  of  the  genera  and  species  of  shells.  A  writer  in  one  of 
39 


460  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

the  late  numbers  of  the  Magazine  of  Natural  History,  in  noticing 
this  passage,  takes  occasion  to  observe,  that  with  a  view  to  lead 
young  persons  to  habits  of  order  and  arrangement,  similar  trays 
ought  to  be  given  to  them ;  or,  what  would  be  still  better,  they 
might  be  taught  the  mode  of  working  in  pasteboard,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  produce  such  articles  of  convenience  themselves.  In  this 
we  most  cordially  agree  with  the  writer;  for,  to  use  his  own 
words,  next  to  the  pleasure  of  collecting  in  the  fields,  is  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  specimens  preserved  neatly  and  in  good  order ; 
and  nothing  is  better  fitted  for  this  than  pasteboard  boxes.  To 
die  mode  of  working  in  this  material,  we  shall  devote  as  much 
space  as  the  comparative  importance  of  the  other  subjects  we 
intend  to  treat  on,  in  the  following  pages,  will  permit:  among 
them,  the  art  of  modelling  in  wax  and  clay,  in  the  higher  depart- 
ments of  which,  our  fair  countrywoman,  Lady  Caroline  Darner, 
has  made  her  name  celebrated,  claims  precedence.  The  figure  of 
this  lady,  executed  by  herself,  as  some  of  our  readers  will  doubt- 
less remember,  adorns  the  hall  of  the  British  Museum. 


MODELLING  IN  CLAY  AND  WAX. 

The  art  of  sculpture,  of  which  modelling  is  a  principal  branch, 
is  nearly  coeval  with  the  existence  of  mankind  in  a  state  of  society. 
To  raise  a  rude  stone  in  memory  of  a  remarkable  person  or  event, 
was  customary  in  the  primitive  nations ;  and  our  knowledge  of 
their  history,  and  of  the  institutions  that  existed  previously  to 
the  use  of  letters,  is  principally  derived  from  hieroglyphical  sculp- 
tures. 

It  is  commonly  understood,  that  sculptors  actually  use  the 
chisel,  and  execute  with  their  own  hands  the  works  that  bear  their 
names;  this  is  not  the  case.  "  From  the  chisel  of  Chantry,"  is  a 
metaphorical  expression :  that  great  man  is  better  employed  than 
in  chiselling  marble.  The  province  of  the  master  mind  is  to 
execute,  in  clay  or  wax,  a  model  of  the  intended  work.  The  imi- 
tation of  a  model,  in  marble  or  other  stone,  is  done  by  the  most 
certain  process  of  geometrical  measurement,  mechanically  applied 
to  transfer  a  sufficient  number  of  points  from  the  model  to  the 
stone,  to  preserve  the  form  of  the  original  work ;  so  that  it  is  neces- 
sary only  to  have  a  careful  workman,  with  the  proper  machine,  to 
bring  out  the  model  to  perfection  in  marble  or  other  stone.  The 
bronze  is  completed  by  the  simple  process  of  making  a  mould  from 


THE  ORNAMENTAL  ARTIST.  461 

the  model,  in  a  material  capable  of  standing  the  heat  of  the  metal 
in  fusion:  the  mould  is  then  broken  off,  and  the  bronze  is  some- 
times worked  upon  by  the  sculptor,  and  an  artificial  bronze  put 
upon  it,  to  make  it  of  one  colour ;  good  taste  would,  however, 
prefer  the  brown  which  arises  from  the  natural  discoloration  of 
the  metal,  by  the  effect  of  the  common  air  upon  it. 

Wax  is  the  best  material  for  small  works,  such  as  miniature 
portraits,  models,  &c.  Large  subjects  are  more  commonly  mo- 
delled in  pipe-clay,  well  tempered  by  wetting  and  beating  it  with 
a  mallet.  The  whole  process  of  preparing  the  clay,  and  the  ope- 
ration of  casting  in  plaster,  which  succeeds  the  modelling,  are 
too  dirty  and  laborious  for  ladies.  In  large  towns,  wax  may  be 
bought  ready  for  moulding ;  and  it  is  advisable  to  purchase,  rather 
than  to  prepare  it.  As,  however,  some  of  our  readers  may  be  so 
situated  as  to  be  unable  to  buy  it  in  a  proper  state,  we  deem  it 
advisable  to  offer  a  few  instructions  for  its  preparation.  The  wax 
should  be  the  fine  white  material  which  is  used  in  making  candles. 
To  two  ounces  of  flake  white,  add  three  ounces  of  Venice  turpen- 
tine, if  it  be  in  the  summer,  and  four  in  winter ;  and  sufficient 
vermilion  to  give  it  a  pinkish  tint :  grind  these  together  on  a  stone 
with  a  muller;  and  then  put  them  into  a  pound  of  wax,  molten  in 
an  earthen  pipkin,  and  turn  them  round  over  the  fire  for  some- 
time. When  thoroughly  mixed,  the  composition  should  be  imme- 
diately removed  and  poured  into  dishes,  previously  wetted  to 
prevent  the  wax  from  sticking  to  them.  A  slow  fire  should  be 
used,  as  the  quality  of  the  composition  depends  upon  its  not  being 
so  overheated  as  to  cause  the  turpentine  to  evaporate,  and  leave 
the  wax  in  a  brittle  state. 

The  tools  for  modelling  are  made  of  box-wood,  bone,  or  ivory ; 
but  those  of  wood  are  most  approved,  especially  for  wax  tools. 
They  are  of  different  shapes;  but  those  most  generally  required 
are  quite  thin,  and  slightly  bent  at  their  ends,  being  rounded  off" 
from  die  middle,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  common  black-lead 
pencil.  Artists  frequently  make  their  own  tools;  but  we  should 
advise  your  young  friends  to  apply  to  a  modeller  for  a  set;  as  also 
for  wax,  and  any  other  necessary  materials ;  all  which  may  be  kept 
together  in  a  box. 

The  principles  of  this  art  are  precisely  the  same  as  those  of 
drawing.  Deprived  of  the  fascination  of  colour, — form,  and  form 
alone,  occupies  the  attention  of  the  sculptor:  if  his  work  be  de- 
ficient in  this  respect,  it  is  utterly  worthless ;  it  is,  therefore,  his 
aim  to  rise  above  the  mere  copying  of  individual  nature,  and  to 


462  THE  ORNAMENTAL  ARTIST. 

erect  a  standard  of  ideal  beauty; — a  beauty,  not  superior  to  nature 
in  the  abstract,  but  superior  to  that  of  any  individual  specimen  of 
it.  Upon  this  principle  the  ancients  executed  their  most  celebrated 
statues,  which  are  not  mere  representations  of  nature,  but  of 
dignified  humanity,  clothed  in  an  imaginary  perfection  of  the  hu- 
man form. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  models: — the  bas  relief,  which  projects 
but  little  from  its  ground;  the  alto  relief,  which  has  a  much  greater 
projection,  or  is,  in  parts,  even  detached  from  it;  and  the  statue, 
or  round  model,  which  stands  independently  on  its  own  base.  For 
the  two  former,  a  board  should  be  provided,  larger  than  the  in- 
tended model,  with  a  rim  round  it,  raised  at  least  an  inch.  The 
space  inside  the  rim  is  to  be  filled  up  with  well-tempered  clay, 
which  must  be  struck  off  level,  by  a  straight-edged  strip  of  wood. 
A  general  outline  of  the  subject  being  sketched  on  this  clay  by  a 
pointed  instrument,  the  embossing  is  commenced.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  preserve  a  dne  proportion  in  the  projection  of  the  parts 
from  the  ground,  as  by  this  the  whole  effect  is  produced;  and 
such  subjects  only  should  be  selected  as  may  be  displayed  without 
fore-shortening.  An  examination  of  medals,  and  of  the  beautiful 
bas-reliefs  of  antiquity,  many  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum,  will  show  how  much  it  is  possible  to  effect  by  very  small 
degrees  of  relief. 

For  modelling  small  subjects,  such  as  medallion  portraits,  in 
wax,  a  back  ground  of  thick  plate-glass,  slate,  or  any  material 
having  a  smooth  hard  surface,  may  be  used.  Wax  models  should 
be  carefully  kept  from  dust  while  in  progress:  those  in  clay  must 
be  constantly  moistened,  by  laying  wet  cloths  over  them,  or  keep- 
ing them  in  a  very  damp  situation,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  be 
broken  after  they  are  finished,  if  suffered  to  dry.  It  is  advisable 
to  have  them  moulded,  and  to  get  casts  taken  from  them  in 
plaster  of  Paris,  by  the  figure-makers,  before  they  are  damaged. 
As  we  do  not  recommend  our  reader  to  attempt  making  the  plaster 
casts  herself,  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe  the  process  of  producing 
them.  Should  there  be  any  objection  or  impediment  to  this  plan, 
the  models  may  be  preserved  by  baking  them  in  a  potter's  kiln, 
by  which  they  are  rendered  as  hard  as  earthenware,  and  differ 
from  it  only  in  being  without  a  glaze.  Many  specimens  of  models 
baked  in  this  manner,  at  very  remote  periods,  have  been  dis- 
covered in  various  parts  of  the  world ;  they  are  styled  terra-cottas  : 
their  colour  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  clay  used;  varying 
from  reddish  brown  to  white. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  463 

Medallion  portraits  should  always  be  represented  in  profile ; 
other  positions  have  been  attempted,  but  seldom  with  a  good 
effect. 

CASTING  IN  PLASTER,  SULPHUR,  &c. 

Taking  the  impressions  of  coins,  medals,  &c.  is,  independently 
of  its  utility,  a  most  interesting  amusement.  This  art  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  to  collectors  of  antique  coins,  &c.  It  is  often 
difficult  and  always  expensive,  to  purchase  superior  specimens ; 
of  which,  however,  exact  models  may  be  obtained  by  casting, 
without  the  slightest  injury  to  the  originals. 

The  mould  is  made  in  the  following  manner : — Take  a  strip  of 
paper,  a  quarter  or  third  of  an  inch  wide ;  roll  it  twice  tight  round 
the  rim  of  the  coin,  or  gem,  of  which  a  cast  is  intended  to  be  taken, 
and  fasten  the  end  with  very  stiff  gum-water,  which  will  hold  it 
instantly.  Rub  a  very  little  oil,  with  a  camePs-hair  pencil,  over  the 
coin,  in  order  to  prevent  the  plaster  from  sticking;  then  mix  some 
fine  plaster  of  Paris,  with  as  much  water  as  will  make  it  almost 
as  thick  as  treacle;  apply  it  quickly  to  the  coin,  on  which  it 
will  be  held  by  the  paper  rim.  It  sets  almost  instantly,  and  may 
be  taken  off  in  a  few  hours ;  but  the  longer  it  remains  undisturbed 
the  better.  The  mould  which  is  thus  obtained,  is  the  reverse  of 
the  coin ;  that  is,  the  impression  is  concave,  like  a  seal.  When 
the  moulds  are  so  dry  that  they  will  not  wrinkle  a  piece  of  paper 
laid  flat  upon  their  surface,  let  them  be  well  saturated  with  the 
best  boiled  linseed  oil,  placing  the  moulds  with  their  surfaces 
upward,  that  the  whole  of  the  oil  may  be  absorbed.  They  must 
be  covered  from  dust;  and  nothing  should  touch  their  surfaces,  lest 
they  suffer  injury.  Moulds,  well  prepared  in  this  manner,  being 
dried  about  two  days  after  being  oiled,  will  stand  a  long  time, 
for  the  casting  of  either  plaster  or  sulphur.  When  used,  either 
Florence  oil,  or  a  little  hog's-lard  (the  latter  is  to  be  preferred) 
should  be  applied  very  tenderly  over  the  mould  with  a  little  of 
the  finest  cotton  wool,  and  the  cotton  wool,  without  lard,  after- 
wards passed  lightly  over  the  surface,  to  leave  as  little  as  possible 
of  the  unctuous  matter  upon  the  mould,  that  the  casts  may 
be  the  finer.  Put  paper  round  them,  as  was  before  done  to  the 
coin ;  pour  on  plaster  in  the  same  manner,  and  a  fac-simile  of 
the  original  will  be  produced. 

Good  casts  may  also  be  made  of  sulphur,  melted  in  an  iron 
ladle,  either  pure,  or  coloured  with  a  little  red  lead  or  vermilion, 
powdered  and  stirred  up  with  it.  The  moulds  and  casts  are  made 
39* 


464  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

in  the  same  manner  as  with  plaster  of  Paris,  only  that  the  sulphur 
must  be  poured  on  the  mould  when  hot;  and  water,  instead  of 
oil,  must  be  used,  to  prevent  adhesion.  Sulphur  makes  the  best 
moulds  for  plaster  casts,  and  vice  versd, — as  similar  substances 
can  seldom  be  prevented,  by  either  water  or  oil,  from  adhering, 
in  some  degree,  to  each  other.  Plaster  cannot  be  used  twice;  that 
is,  old  or  spoiled  casts  cannot  be  powdered  and  again  employed; 
for  the  moment  the  material  is  wetted,  being  a  species  of  lime,  it 
is  no  longer  plaster,  without  being  reburnt. 

Another  way  of  making  casts  of  almost  any  colour,  is  with  a 
strong  solution  of  isinglass:  it  must  be  used  when  quite  hot;  and 
it  is  so  thin,  that  a  box  exactly  fitting  the  rim  of  the  coin  is  re- 
quired, otherwise  it  will  escape.  It  may  be  coloured  with  saffron, 
woad,  &c. 

Very  beautiful  impressions  may  be  taken  by  pouring  melted 
wax  upon  the  medal,  which  comes  off  easily  when  the  wax  and 
metal  are  perfectly  cold ;  but  any  one  attempting  this  had  better 
try  it  first  upon  a  halfpenny,  or  other  coin  of  small  value. 

Impressions  may  also  be  taken  in  wax,  which,  for  this  purpose, 
should  be  rendered  pliable  by  kneading  it  with  the  hand  before 
the  fire;  a  little  oil  having  been  previously  mixed  with  it. 
When  softened  to  about  the  consistence  of  putty,  lay  it  and  press 
it  close  down  on  the  coin,  the  form  of  which  will  then  be  perfectly 
obtained. 

The  following  is  another  mode  of  taking  impressions: — Procure 
tin  or  lead-foil,  as  thin  as  possible,  place  it  on  the  coin,  and  with 
a  pin's  head,  or  any  small,  smooth  instrument,  work  it  into  every 
part;  then  take  it  off,  revert  it  into  a  shallow  box,  and  pour  plaster 
into  its  concave  side:  a  durable  plaster  cast  is  thus  obtained, 
covered  with  tin  foil,  which  will  resemble  silver. 

PAINTING  ON  GLASS. 

Among  those  works  which  profess  to  teach  the  art  of  painting 
on  glass,  we  find  some  in  which  directions  are  given  for  staining 
large  windows  in  churches  and  halls;  and  the  others,  which 
merely  contain  the  process  of  producing  the  paintings  some- 
times seen  in  cottages,  or  carried  about  the  streets  for  sale,  by 
Italians  and  Jews,  representing  scriptural  or  sporting  subjects. 
These,  we  believe,  were  much  in  vogue  sixty  years  since,  as  we 
find  the  mode  of  doing  them  described  in  all  the  Young  Artist's 
Assistants  of  that  day ;  which  mode  has  been  copied  into  similar 


THE  ORNAMENTAL  ARTIST.  465 

publications  up  to  the  present  time.  They  direct  us  to  fix  a  mezzo- 
tinto  print  upon  the  back  of  a  sheet  of  glass,  and  to  remove  the 
paper  by  wetting  and  rubbing, — leaving  the  impression  of  the 
print,  which  is  afterwards  to  be  painted  in  broad  washes ;  the  ink 
of  the  print  giving  the  shadows.  The  picture  being  then  turned 
over,  the  glazed  side  becomes  the  front,  and  the  colours  first  laid 
on  are,  of  course,  nearest  to  the  eye. 

The  methods  by  which  glass  is  stained  are  scientific;  they 
require  a  profound  knowledge  of  chemistry,  and  such  apparatus 
as  must  preclude  the  practice  of  this,  which  is  the  grandest,  branch 
of  the  art,  as  an  amusement.  It  may  be  interesting,  however, 
to  know  the  principles  upon  which  it  is  performed.  The  glass 
being,  at  first,  colourless,  a  drawing  is  made  upon  it,  and  the 
painting  is  laid  on  with  mineral  substances ;  the  vehicle  being  a 
volatile  oil,  which  soon  evaporates.  The  sheets  of  glass  are  then 
exposed  to  a  powerful  heat,  until  they  are  so  far  melted  that 
they  receive  the  colours  into  their  own  substances:  enamel  paint- 
ing is  done  on  the  same  principle.  This  is  a  time  of  great  anxiety 
to  the  artist;  as,  with  all  possible  care,  valuable  paintings,  both 
in  glass  and  enamel,  are  frequently  spoiled  in  the  proving,  or  vitri- 
fication. The  art  seems  to  have  been  lost  during  several  centuries, 
but  it  has  of  late  been  successfully  revived;  and  large  windows 
have  been  executed  for  churches  and  gothic  halls,  which  almost 
vie  with  the  fine  old  specimens  in  the  cathedrals,  in  point  of 
colour,  while  they  far  excel  them  in  other  respects. 

The  branch  of  the  art  which  may  be  treated  as  an  accomplish- 
ment, is  the  decoration  of  glass  flower-stands,  lamp-shades,  and 
similar  articles,  with  light  and  elegant  designs.  Flowers,  birds, 
butterflies,  and  pleasing  landscapes,  yield  an  extensive  range  of 
subjects,  which  are  suitable  to  this  style  of  ornamental  painting. 
The  glasses  may  be  procured  ready  ground.  The  outline  may 
be  sketched  in  with  black-lead  pencil,  which  can  be  washed  off 
with  a  sponge  when  the  colours  are  dry.  The  whole  of  the  colours 
employed  must  be  transparent,  and  ground  in  oil:  opaque,  or  body 
colours,  will  not  answer  the  purpose.  They  may  be  purchased  in 
small  bladders,  only  requiring  to  be  tempered  with  fine  copal 
or  mastich  varnish,  and  a  very  little  nut  oil,  to  be  ready  for  use. 
Blue  is  produced  by  Prussian  blue;  red,  by  scarlet  or  crimson 
lake;  yellow,  by  yellow  lake,  or  gumboge;  green,  by  verdigris, 
or  mineral  green,  or  a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  gumboge; 
purple,  by  a  mixture  of  lake  and  Prussian  blue ;  reddish  brown, 
by  burnt  sienna;  and  all  the  other  tints  may  be  obtained  by 


466  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

combinations:  for  white,  or  such  parts  as  are  required  to  be 
transparent,  without  colour,  the  varnish  only  should  be  employed. 
A  very  chaste  and  pleasing  effect  may  be  produced  by  painting 
the  whole  design  in  varnish,  without  colour.  It  is  an  advantage 
to  this  style  of  painting,  that  but  few  colours  are  required;  as, 
from  the  nature  of  the  subjects,  and  their  purpose  as  ornaments, 
brilliancy  is  more  desirable  than  a  nice  gradation  of  tints.  The 
work  must,  of  course,  be  carefully  dried,  but  may  afterwards  be 
cleaned  with  a  sponge  and  cold  water. 


PAINTING  ON   VELVET. 

Paintings  on  velvet  are  very  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  easy  of 
execution.  Chair-cushions,  sofas,  ottomans,  fire-screens,  hand- 
screens,  bell-pulls,  reticules,  purses,  watch-pockets,  and  a  variety 
of  other  useful  and  decorative  articles  may  be  ornamented  with 
them. 

The  largest  and  most  brilliant  flowers,  fruits,  shells,  birds,  &c. 
are  all  well  adapted  to  this  style  of  painting.  The  colours  are  sold 
at  the  drawing-material  warehouses,  in  a  liquid  state  and  prepared 
for  use.  In  addition  to  these,  a  brilliant  rose  colour  is  obtained 
from  the  pink  saucers,  by  dropping  a  little  weak  gum-water  upon 
the  colour,  and  rubbing  it  with  a  brush.  A  deep  yellow  may  also 
be  produced,  by  pouring  a  few  drops  of  boiling  water  upon  a 
small  quantity  of  hay  saffron.  It  is  necessary  to  mix  gum-water 
with  all  the  colours  made,  to  prevent  their  spreading  into  each 
other:  gum  dragon  is  the  best  for  this  purpose.  The  brushes  used 
are  called  scrubs ;  they  consist  of  a  small  stick,  with  a  camel's- 
hair  brush  cut  off  quite  short  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other,  a  brush 
of  bristles  of  a  much  harder  description.  A  small  box  of  black 
lead  is  necessary,  and  a  piece  of  list  rolled  tightly  round,  to  the 
diameter  of  about  two  inches,  to  be  used  as  a  sort  of  brush  with 
the  black  lead,  for  making  outlines,  in  the  manner  we  shall  pre- 
sently direct.  A  piece  of  linen  rag,  to  wipe  the  brushes  on,  should 
also  be  provided. 

The  outline  of  the  subject  may  be  sketched  in  pencil  on  the 
velvet,  which  is  of  such  a  very  delicate  nature,  that  the  greatest 
nicety  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  a  state  of  neatness.  Care  should 
also  be  taken  that  the  sketch  is  correctly  made,  as  an  error  cannot 
be  effaced  by  rubbing  out,  as  on  paper.  It  is  a  safer  method, 
however,  to  make  the  sketch  on  drawing-paper,  and  to  prick  the 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  467 

outline  very  closely  with  a  fine  needle;  then,  the  velvet  being 
previously  nailed  on  a  flat  piece  of  wood  of  a  proper  size,  the 
pricked  pattern  may  be  laid  over  it,  the  roll  of  list  dipped  into 
die  black-lead  powder,  and  rubbed  regularly  over  the  pattern  from 
side  to  side,  observing  to  touch  every  part,  and  on  removing  the 
pattern,  a  perfect  outline  in  black  dots  will  appear  on  the  velvet. 
Where  a  set  of  any  article  of  the  same  pattern  is  undertaken,  this 
is  a  very  good  plan,  as  it  ensures  accuracy,  and  saves  the  trouble 
of  making  separate  sketches.  Even  those  who  have  no  knowledge 
of  drawing  on  paper  may  produce  a  design  on  velvet,  with  ease 
and  correctness,  by  tracing  off  against  a  window,  or  by  means  of 
tracing  paper,  any  drawing  or  print  which  they  wish  to  copy,  and 
pricking  the  tracing  on  the  velvet  in  the  manner  we  have  just 
described.  In  order  to  keep  the  margin  of  the  velvet  from  being 
soiled  in  the  progress  of  painting,  a  piece  of  thick  paper  should 
be  laid  over  the  whole,  and  an  aperture  cut  in  the  middle,  suffi- 
ciently large  to  expose  the  part  to  be  worked  on. 

Each  brush  should  be  kept  for  that  colour  alone  to  which  it  has 
once  been  appropriated.  A  small  quantity  of  the  colour  about  to 
be  used  should  be  poured  into  a  little  cup,  and  a  drop  of  gum- 
water  added,  and  stirred  with  the  stick  of  a  pencil  prior  to  its 
being  taken  on  the  brush.  The  mode  of  its  application  is  so 
simple,  that  a  short  description  of  the  execution  of  a  single 
flower  will  suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  the  process  of  painting  almost 
any  other  subject  on  velvet.  A  very  small  portion  of  colour  is  to 
be  taken  upon  the  brush,  and  the  darkest  part  of  the  leaf  touched 
with  it;  the  brush  is  then  to  be  dipped  in  water,  and  the  colour 
gradually  softened  to  the  edge;  each  leaf  ought  to  be  coloured 
separately,  and  the  darkest  parts  in  the  centre  of  the  flowers  may 
be  finished  with  a  small  brush  without  softening.  Indian  ink  is 
used  to  make  the  dark  shadows  of  crimson  flowers.  The  veins, 
the  petals  of  flowers,  and  all  the  fine  lines,  should  be  done  with  a 
pen.  Each  leaf,  as  it  is  shadowed,  should  be  brushed  with  the 
hard  end  of  a  brush,  that  way  of  the  velvet  in  which  the  pile  runs 
most  easily,  and  then  in  the  contrary  direction,  so  as  to  set  it  up 
again  to  become  dry.  A  deeper  shade  should  never  be  added  to  a 
leaf  or  flower  until  the  colour  previously  laid  on  is  perfectly  set, 
or  the  two  colours  will  spread  and  run  into  each  other:  this  will 
be  prevented  by  the  gum,  if  sufficient  time  be  allowed  for  each 
shade  to  dry  before  a  subsequent  one  is  applied. 

When  the  piece  is  finished,  and  quite  dry.  it  should  be  brushed 
over  with  a  small  round  brush,  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  with 


468  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

hard  bristles  of  an  equal  length,  to  raise  up  such  parts  of  the  pile 
as  may  have  been  flattened  in  the  process  of  painting. 

CHINESE  PAINTING. 

A  variety  of  articles,  such  as  work-boxes  and  baskets,  screens, 
and  small  ornamental  tables,  may  be  procured  at  the  fancy  shops, 
made  of  a  beautiful  white  wood,  quite  plain,  for  the  purpose  of 
being  ornamented,  by  ladies,  in  the  Chinese  style.  The  subjects 
generally  represented  are  Chinese  figures  and  landscapes,  Indian 
flowers,  or  grotesque  ornaments.  Patterns  on  paper,  and  the 
colour,  which  is  black,  used  in  the  operation,  are  also  supplied  at 
the  same  places. 

Tracing  paper  is  to  be  laid  over  the  pattern,  and  the  outline 
drawn  with  a  pencil.  The  tracing  is  then  placed  with  the  pencilled 
side  downwards  on  the  wood,  and  the  pattern,  which  will  plainly 
appear  through,  is  rubbed  with  the  handle  of  an  ivory  folder,  or 
of  a  penknife,  so  as  to  transfer  the  pencil  lines  to  the  wood.  This 
outline  must  then  be  sketched  in  with  a  pen  dipped  in  the  black 
colour  to  be  used  for  the  ground.  All  the  shades  and  lines  in  the 
design  should  be  correctly  finished  by  the  pen,  after  the  manner 
of  line  engraving;  and  the  whole  of  the  ground,  or  space  sur- 
rounding the  outline  of  the  figures,  must  be  covered  with  the 
black  colour,  laid  on  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil.  When  the  paint- 
ing is  dry,  the  whole  article  should  be  finished  with  a  transparent 
varnish;  to  perform  which,  however,  it  should  be  observed,  that 
a  thin  coat  of  isinglass-size  is  to  be  passed  over  the  wood  previously 
to  the  tracing.  The  varnish  to  be  used  is  white  mastich.  The 
general  effect  is  very  pleasing,  and  resembles  ebony  inlaid  with 
ivory.  It  is  also  an  art  very  easy  of  attainment,  and  requiring 
but  little  proficiency  in  drawing. 

LITHOGRAPHY. 

A  few  words  on  the  subject  of  the  recently-introduced  art  of 
Lithography,  we  recommend  to  the  attention  of  students,  who 
are  desirous  of  multiplying  impressions  of  their  drawings  for  the 
gratification  of  their  friends. 

The  principle  of  the  art  arises  out  of  the  antipathy  (if  it  may  be 
so  called)  of  grease  to  water.  A  drawing  is  made  on  a  fine  absorbent 
stone,  which  is  imported  from  Bavaria,  with  a  crayon  of  a  greasy 
nature ;  the  stone  then  undergoes  a  chemical  process,  and  is  saturated 


THE  ORNAMENTAL  ARTIST.  469 

with  water  by  the  printer.  It  may  easily  be  conceived,  that  when 
a  printing-ink  of  an  oily  nature  is  applied  to  the  surface,  it  will 
only  adhere  to  the  lines  which  are  drawn  upon  it  by  a  crayon 
composed  of  materials  in  affinity  with  itself.  The  stones  and  the 
chalk ;  as  it  is  commonly,  though  incorrectly  called,  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  lithographic  printers.  The  chalk  is  prepared  from 
substances  of  a  greasy  nature,  and  hardened  by  an  alkali,  which 
is  extracted,  after  the  drawing  is  made,  by  the  chemical  process 
before  mentioned:  black  is  mixed  with  it  merely  to  render  the 
lines  perfectly  visible  to  the  eye  of  the  artist;  it  would  print 
equally  well  though  the  crayon  were  colourless.  This  remark  is 
made,  to  impress  upon  the  student  the  importance  of  keeping 
everything  of  a  similar  nature  from  the  stone,  as  it  will  infallibly 
appear  in  the  impressions:  not  even  the  coolest  hand  must  touch 
this  sensitive  material.  The  extreme  care  and  delicacy  requisite 
upon  this  point,  form  the  peculiar  difficulty  of  the  art.  When 
the  drawing  is  finished,  the  stone  is  to  be  sent  to  the  person  from 
whom  it  was  obtained,  with  an  order  to  print  as  many  impressions 
as  the  artist  may  desire.  To  those  who  are  desirous  of  acquiring 
a  proficiency  in  this  art,  we  strongly  recommend  an  attentive 
perusal  of  Hullmandel's  Treatise  on  Lithography. 

ORIENTAL  TINTING,  OR  POONAH  WORK. 

Flowers,  fruit,  butterflies,  &c.  from  original  pictures,  may  be 
executed,  in  a  very  brilliant  manner,  in  Poonah  painting,  or  Ori- 
ental tinting. 

A  piece  of  tracing-paper,  of  a  peculiar  manufacture,  which  is 
sold  at  the  stationers'  shops  as  Poonah-paper,  is  laid  on  the  subject 
to  be  copied,  and  all  the  parts  of  one  colour  are  marked  in  outline 
on  it  with  a  steel  point ;  the  interior  of  the  outline  is  then  cut 
out,  either  with  a  sharp-pointed  penknife,  or  with  little  instru- 
ments, made  for  the  purpose,  which  are  sold  at  the  shops  where 
drawing  materials  are  procured.  Another  piece  of  tracing-paper 
is  then  laid  on  for  the  purpose  of  marking  and  cutting  out  all  the 
compartments  of  another  colour;  and  so  on,  until  a  series  of 
frames,  or  formules,  is  obtained,  each  of  them  having  apertures, 
through  which  the  whole  of  some  one  colour  can  be  laid  on  the 
paper.  The  principal  formule  is  to  be  placed  on  a  piece  of  London 
drawing-board,  and  the  colour  applied  with  a  flat  Poonah  brush, 
held  perpendicularly:  the  parts  are  then  to  be  shaded  from  the 
edge  as  may  be  requisite;  the  colour  being  first  nearly  all  rubbed 


470  THE  ORNAMENTAL  ARTIST. 

out  of  the  brush  on  a  piece  of  waste  paper.  Each  colour  is  to  be  laid 
on,  in  the  same  way,  through  the  apertures  of  its  own  formule. 
The  wings  or  bodies  of  beautiful  insects  are  sometimes  ornamented 
with  touches  of  gold  or  ruby  bronze.  A  little  gum  water,  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  the  gold  or  bronze,  is  laid  on  the  paper 
with  a  brush;  dry  gold,  or  bronze,  is  then  applied  with  another 
brush  to  the  same  part,  and  rubbed  until  it  becomes  smooth 
and  polished.  A  small  light  spot  is  obtained  by  laying  a  drop  of 
water  on  any  part  previously  coloured,  and  absorbing  the  colour 
from  it  with  blotting-paper.  The  rich  dark  specks  on  the  wings  of 
some  insects  are  produced  by  lamp-black,  laid  on  with  a  pencil. 
To  produce  a  regular  series  of  streaks,  or  bars,  the  edge  of  a 
piece  of  Poonah  tracing-paper,  cut  in  a  proper  shape,  should  be 
used  as  a  guide  to  the  brush.  It  is  necessary  to  wash  the  frames, 
or  formules,  with  a  sponge  after  having  used  them;  and  separate 
Poonah  brushes  should  be  provided  for  the  different  colours,  as 
well  as  for  the  various  shades  of  each:  about  two  dozen  will  be 
found  sufficient;  but  a  few  camel's-hair  pencils  are  also  necessary 
to  finish  such  parts  as  cannot  be  completed  by  means  of  the 
patterns  in  the  tracing-paper, — such  as  small  spots,  minute  streaks, 
the  delicate  antennae  of  insects,  &c.  The  formules  for  the  various 
colours  may  be  cut  out  of  one  piece  of  tracing-paper  when  the 
subject  is  small.  The  colours  are  the  same  as  those  in  the  common 
style  of  water-colours.  Chromes  are  used  for  yellows;  neutral 
tint  for  the  dark  shades,  and  smalt  and  carmine  for  purples;  a 
brilliant  scarlet  is  indispensable.  A  very  good  effect  may  be  pro- 
duced by  colouring  the  wings  of  a  butterfly  on  both  sides,  cutting 
it  out  neatly,  gumming  its  body  to  a  bouquet  of  flowers,  in  Poonah- 
work,  and  raising  the  wings  a  little  from  the  surface.  For  this 
purpose  an  incision  must  be  made  in  the  under  side  of  the  drawing- 
paper  with  a  knife,  where  the  wings  are  joined  to  the  body.  In 
the  choice  of  colours,  the  young  artist  should  follow  Nature  as 
closely  as  circumstances  will  permit;  otherwise  her  productions 
in  Oriental  tinting  will  prove  offensive,  rather  than  pleasing,  to 
persons  of  taste. 

MODELLING  WITH  RICE-PAPER. 

Rice-paper  is  principally  applied  to  the  formation  of  groups  of 
flowers,  either  on  card-board,  or  affixed  to  small  vases,  baskets, 
&c.  in  festoons  and  clusters.  The  rice-paper  may  be  procured  in 
various  colours,  and  intermediate  tints  may  be  made  by  colouring 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTISTV^^.     -471 

the  white.  Several  pieces  of  rice-paper  are  laid  on  each  other  upon 
a  tablet  of  lead,  and  the  leaves  and  component  parts  of  flowers 
are  cut  out  with  small  steel  punches,  which  may  be  procured,  in 
every  variety  of  form,  at  the  fancy  tool  warehouses.  A  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  different  leaves  having  been  thus  formed,  and 
placed  on  separate  trays,  each  leaf  is  to  be  held  by  a  delicate  pair  of 
tweezers,  and  its  end  affixed,  with  stiff  gum-water,  to  the  article 
to  be  ornamented.  Thus,  the  heads  of  roses  and  thick  clusters  of 
flowers,  are  formed,  and  fine  delicate  parts  may  be  drawn  in 
colours  afterwards.  Water-colour  drawings  are  frequently  made 
on  leaves  of  rice-paper,  for  scrap-books,  screens,  &c.  The  effect 
of  the  colours,  if  properly  managed,  on  this  material,  is  very  soft 
and  delicate. 

MODELLING  IN  PASTEBOARD  AND  PAPER. 

The  following  tools  will  be  found  necessary  for  making  boxes, 
and  other  kinds  of  fancy  paper  or  pasteboard  ornaments: — A  pa- 
rallel ruler,  with  a  small  wheel  at  each  end,  which  may  be  pur- 
chased at  any  mathematical-instrument  maker's;  a  flat  ruler,  with 
brass-bound  edges,  to  prevent  its  being  notched  when  cut  against: 
a  carpenter's  square  (Fig.  1>)  the  sides  of 
which,  e  f,  are  rectangular;  consequently, 
by  placing  the  side  f  against  any  straight 
line,  and  ruling  another  with  the  side  e,  two 
sides  of  a  square  are  produced;  by  reversing 
its  position,  ruling  as  before,  a  square  may  be  formed  with  very 
little  trouble;  inches,  and  their  usual  subdivisions,  should  be 
marked  on  the  side  e.  To  rule  parallel  lines,  a  T  square  (Fig.  2) 
2  will  also  be  found  of  considerable  utility.  For  this 
purpose,  the  paper  should  be  fastened  to  a  drawing- 
board,  and  the  top  part  of  the  ruler  placed  against 
the  edge  of  the  board;  the  lines  are  then  to  be  ruled 
by  the  side  of  the  long  part  of  the  instrument,  and  if 
it  be  carefully  moved  along  the  drawing-board,  the  lines 
will  be  parallel:  much  of  the  trouble  occasioned  by 
using  a  parallel  ruler  may  thus  be  avoided:  it  is  re- 
quisite, however,  to  observe  that  the  paper  is  fixed  square  on  the 
board.  Instead  of  the  common  clasp  pen-knives,  which,  being  apt 
to  slip  and  shut  suddenly  when  used  to  cut  pasteboard,  are  rather 
dangerous,  we  recommend  knives  of  different  dimensions,  and  of 
various  degrees  of  strength.  For  the  smaller  sizes,  the  blade  should 
40 


472 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


be  immoveable:  the  most  convenient  shape  is  indicated  by  fig.  3. 
In  cutting  pasteboard  or  paper,  the  ruler,  which  is  used  to  guide 
3  the  knife,  should  be  pressed  evenly  and  firmly  on  the 
paper;  the  blade  must  be  carried  as  close  to  the  ruler  as 
possible;  care  being  at  the  same  time  taken  not  to  injure 
its  edge.  A  pair  of  compasses,  having  a  moveable  leg, 
with  pencil,  steel  ruling-pen,  and  knife,  to  fix  in,  are 
essential  implements  :  the  knife  is  used  for  cutting  out 
circles,  so  as  to  avoid  the  unevenness  generally  occasioned 
by  scissors.  A  crimping-machine,  which  is  formed  of  a 
block  of  brass,  fluted  on  one  side,  with  a  roller  of  the  same  width 
and  with  the  same-sized  flutes,  to  match  the  block,  will  be  found 
exceedingly  useful:  in  using  it,  place  the  paper,  or  whatever  you 
wish  to  crimp,  on  the  block,  then  press  and  turn  the  roller  over  it 
by  the  handles.  A  drawing-board,  made  of  wood,  well-seasoned, 
and  securely-clamped  at  the  edges  to  prevent  it  from  warping; 
punches,  of  different  forms  and  sizes,  for  making  holes ;  a  pair  of 
small  pincers,  a  file,  and  brass  pins,  for  fixing  the  paper  on  the 
drawing-board  when  not  strained,  will  also  be  found  necessary. 

PASTEBOARD    BOXES. 

As  the  forms  of  all  sorts  of  fancy  ornaments  may  be  infinitely 
varied,  we  shall  merely  give  examples  of  general  principles,  leav- 
ing their  application,  in  a  great  degree,  to  the  taste  of  our  fair 
readers.  To  make  a  square  box,  draw  the  shape  of  the  bottom  the 
A  size  the  box  is  intended  to  be ;  and  for  the  sides, 

draw  lines  parallel  to  the  bottom,  at  the  distance 
of  the  intended  depth  (Fig.  4;)  the  corners 
should  be  cut  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines ;  the 
lines  of  the  bottom,  on  the  edges  intended  to  be 
outward,  should  be  cut  half  through  the  paste- 
board, and  turned  up  at  right  angles  to  the 
bottom;  they  are  then  to  be  pasted  to  a  strip  of  pasteboard  about 
half  an  inch  deeper  than  the  box.  The  lid  is  made  exactly  in  the 
same  way  as  the  box  itself,  with  the  exception  of 
the  inner  piece  of  pasteboard.  The  edges  of  the 
top  are  to  be  joined  by  fixing  narrow  ribbon  on 
them  with  gum;  and,  for  the  sake  of  uniformity, 
ribbon  of  a  similar  colour  should  be  gummed 
round  the  edges  of  the  lower  part.  The  top  and 
sides  may  be  decorated  with  drawings  (Fig.  5,)  and  the  corners 
and  edges  bound  with  strips  of  coloured  paper,  instead  of  ribbon. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


473 


Strictly  speaking,  all  kinds  of  boxes  ought  to  be  made  on  a 
block  of  wood,  of  the  shape  they  are  intended  to  be  :  the  block 
should  be  introduced  before  the  sides  are  turned  up,  which  must 
then  be  gummed  or  pasted  together,  and  the  whole  bound  and 
left  to  dry  on  the  block  :  but  by  care  and  delicate  handling,  the 
absolute  necessity  of  blocks  may  be  superseded. 


CARD    BOXES. 

These  boxes  are  made  on  the  same  principle  as  the  former, 
but  of  the  shape  and  size  of  a  pack  of  cards:  they  generally  have 
a  notch  in  the  upper  part  to  admit  the  thumb  and  finger,  in  order 
to  extricate  the  cards.  By  this  plan,  however,  in  a  short  time, 
^r\^6  the  outside  cards  become  soiled;  to  remedy  which 

inconvenience,  we  recommend  the  following  me- 
thod:— make  an  incision  in  the  front  and  back  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  box,  about  two-thirds  from 
the  bottom ;  pass  a  piece  of  ribbon,  the  width  of 
the  incisions,  through  each  of  them;  fasten  one 
end  to  the  outside  by  a  small  bow,  and  at  the  other 
end  attach  a  small  button,  leaving  so  much  ribbon 
in  the  inside,  that  when  the  cards  are  put  in,  it 
will  be  flat  under  them,  on  the  bottom  of  the  box, 
without  a  crease  (see  dotted  lines,  fig.  6.)  To 
take  them  out,  pull  the  small  button,  which  will 
draw  the  ribbon  straight,  and,  consequently,  lift 
the  cards.  This  contrivance  may  be  applied  to 
similar  boxes  made  for  any  other  purpose,  such  as 
to  contain  "a  beautifully-bound  little  book,  &c.  (Fig.  7,  the  card- 
box.) 

BASKET    AND    WORK-BAG. 

From  among  the  many  varieties  of  shape   in  which  baskets 
with  work-bags  may  be  constructed,  we  select   the  following: — 

For  the  bottom,  a  piece  of  card- 
board of  an  oblong  shape  is 
cut  partly  through,  all  round, 
within  half  an  inch  of  the  edge, 
which  is  then  bent  so  as  to 
form  an  obtuse  angle  (Fig.  8;)  the  sides  are  made  separate,  and 
in  the  shape  of  fig.  9;  at  the  dotted  line,  and  also  at  the  line  a 
below  it,  the  card-board  should  be  cut  half  through ;  the  part  below 


474 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


the  line  a  is  fastened  with  gum  to  the  upper  edge  of  the  bottom,  so 
as  to  form  an  obtuse  angle  with  it.  Make  and  fix  all  the  sides  in  a 
similar  way ;  and  when  securely  gummed 
to  the  bottom,  fasten  them  together  with 
a  strip  of  thick  paper,  gummed  on  the 
inside  of  the  edges  from  the  bottom  up- 
wards to  the  dotted  line ;  the  upper  part 
above  which  will  then  fold  over  and  form 
a  sort  of  covering  (Fig.  10.)  The  parts  of  the  card-board  which 
are  cut  half  through,  should  be  covered  with  strips  of  gold-paper, 
and  the  whole  may  be  ornamented  with  draw- 
ings of  flowers,  &c.  The  bag  should  be  made 
of  silk,  without  a  bottom,  and  gummed  round 
the  inside  of  the  basket  (Fig.  11,)  which,  when 
the  bag  is  folded  up,  will  completely  conceal  it. 
The  bottom  of  the  basket  may  be  mounted  on 
four  gold  balls  securely  fastened  to  the  corners. 

PASTEBOARD    BASKETS. 

Pasteboard  baskets,  in  a  variety  of  forms,  may  be  constructed 
on  the  same  plan  as  the  boxes.  One  of  the  best  shapes  is  that  of  an 
inverted  pyramid :  this  merely  requires 
considerably  less  of  the  corners  to  be 
removed  than  in  making  a  rectangular 
box.  Cut  the  corners  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  fig.  12;  fasten  the  sides  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  boxes. 
The  handles  may  be  either  single  or 


double,  and  made  to  spring  from  the  corners,  or  the  middle  of  the 
sides;  if  only  one  be  preferred,  it  should  always  spring  from  the 
13  middle:  they  are  generally  made  of  a 

narrow  slip  of  card-board,  covered  either 
with  gold  paper  or  narrow  ribbon,  ga- 
thered very  full  on  each  side  of  it;  the 
game  kind  of  ribbon  should  be  gathered 
equally  full  round  the  upper  part  of  the 
basket,  and  small  bows  should  be  added 
to  each  of  the  corners.  The  basket  may 
be  lined  and  covered  with  coloured  paper 
or  silk,  or  its  sides  decorated  by  draw- 
ings, embossed  gold  ornaments,  or  otherwise,  according  to  the 
taste  and  fancy  of  the  artist  (Fig.  13,  pasteboard  basket.) 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


475 


HYACINTH     STANDS. 

The  lower  part  of  the  hyacinth  stand  is  made  of  pasteboard, 
on  a  cylindrical  block:  it  should  always  be  three  or  four  inches 
in  height,  but  its  diameter  must  be  regulated  by  the  size  of 
the  glass  intended  to  be  placed  in  it.  The  interior  should 
be  lined.  The  four  wires  must  rise  about  fifteen  inches  above 
the  stand:  they  should  be  fastened  in  the  inside  before 
the  lining  is  introduced.  The  best  plan  of  fixing,  is 
to  glue  them  strongly,  and  afterwards  to  gum  a  stout 
piece  of  paper  over  them ;  they  may  be  connected,  at 
different  heights,  by  pieces  of  the  same  material  pass- 
ing round  them.  Gold  and  coloured  paper,  cut  into 
narrow  fillets,  may  be  turned  round  these  wires,  or 
they  may  be  ornamented  with  sealing-wax,  of  different 
colours,  melted  in  spirits  of  wine  to  the  consistence  of 
a  thick  varnish,  and  turned  round  the  wires  in  rotation  by  means 
of  a  camel's-hair  pencil  (Fig.  14,  hyacinth  stand). 


WHAT-NOTS,    OR     CARD    RECEIVERS. 

What-nots,  or  card  receivers,  may  be  made  in   a  variety  of 
shapes.     To  construct  a  card  receiver  in  the  shape  of  fig.  15,  cut 
15  16  a  piece  of  card-board 

for  the  back  (Fig.  16); 
bind  the  edge  of  the 
upper  part  with  gold- 
paper  ;  and  paste  dead 
gold    paper,     on    the 
sides,   shading  it   ac- 
cording to  taste;  the 
lower  part  should  be 
bound   with   coloured  ribbon;    the   front  is  to  be  formed  in  the 
same  shape  as  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  and  bound  with  ribbon; 
n  it  may  also  be  ornamented  with  diamond 

figures,  (as  fig.  17,)  in  the  following  manner: 
— cut  another  piece  of  pasteboard  the  same 
size,  and  paste  them  together,  first  cutting 
the  diamonds  in  the  outer,  or  front   one; 
gum  small  circular  pieces  of  gold-paper  on  the  intersections,  or 
diamonds,    and  lightly  shade   the    intervening  spaces.     To   join 
40* 


476 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


the  front  and  back  together,  sew  stiff  ribbon  or  silk,  of  half  an 
inch  or  an  inch  wide,  to  the  narrow  ribbon,  with  which  each  of 
them  is  bound.  They  may  either,  when  finished,  be  suspended 
by  a  small  piece  of  ribbon,  gummed  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
back,  or  may  be  placed  on  stands,  like  other  chimney  ornaments. 
On  the  same  plan,  by  fastening  a  small  circular  box  on  the  inside 
of  the  front,  and  cutting  a  circle  out  of  the  front  itself,  a  stand 
for  a  time-piece  may  be  formed 


CRIMPED    PAPER     HAND     SCREENS. 

The  paper  commonly  used  for  making  these  hand-screens,  is 
glazed  and  coloured  on  both  sides.      Divide  a  sheet  into  three 
parts  or  equal  strips,  of  two  of  which  the  screen 
is  to  be  formed;    join  them    into  one    length, 
crimp  them  with  the  machine,  and  run  a  thread 
completely    through    one    of    the     edges,     first 
putting  on  the  other  edge,  which  will  be  the 
margin  of  the  screen,  a  narrow  border  of  gold 
paper.      Having  fastened  one  end  of  the  thread, 
begin  to  draw  the  crimped  paper  into  a  circular 
form  (see  fig.   18,  which  shows  this  partially 
done)  :   when  the  lower  part,  which  in  the  en- 
graving appears  straight,  is  drawn  by  the  thread  into  the  shape  of 
the  upper  part,  fasten  the  two  ends  firmly  together.      The  handles 
19  may    be    purchased    at    any    fancy   repository, 

either  black  or  white,  according  to  taste.  The 
taper  end,  which  is  the  part  to  be  fastened  to 
the  screen,  should  be  covered  with  paper  of 
the  same  colour  as  the  screen.  Gum  the  handle 
firmly  on,  taking  care  that  it  covers  the  part 
where  the  paper  is  joined;  it  should  extend, 
for  the  sake  of  strength,  to  some  distance  be- 
yond the  centre.  For  the  purpose  of  entirely 
concealing  the  junction  on  the  centre,  gum  a 
star,  or  some  other  pretty  and  appropriate  orna- 
ment, on  each  side  of  the  screen :  one  or  two 
bows  of  narrow  ribbon  may  be  put  on  different 
parts  of  the  handle,  by  way  of  finish.  The  two  ends  of  the  paper 
should  be  so  contrived,  that  the  handle,  being  neatly  and  firmly 
gummed  on  one  of  them,  the  other  may  wrap  securely  over,  with- 
out showing  where  they  are  joined  (Fig.  19). 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  477 


TRANSPARENT   SCREENS. 

Draw  on  rather  a  thin  piece  of  drawing-paper,  any  kind  of 
figure,  animal,  or  small  composition ;  for  instance, — a  boy  hold- 
ing a  mouse  in  a  trap,  with  a  dog  jumping  up  towards  it.  The 
design  should  be  sketched  very  lightly,  without  any  dark  shadows. 
Trace  it  exactly  on  another  piece  of  paper,  line  for  line;  then,  by 
adding  a  frock,  bonnet,  curls,  bracelets,  &c,  the  boy  may  be  changed 
to  a  girl;  particular  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  entire  outline  of 
the  boy  on  the  folds,  &c.  of  the  girl's  frock:  or  the  mouse-trap  may 
be  converted  into  a  cage,  by  lengthening  the  bottom;  the  mouse 
into  a  bird,  by  the  addition  of  plumage;  and  the  dog  into  a  cat,  by 
putting  a  longer  tail,  rounder  head,  &c.  Again,  should  the  first 
drawing  be  a  boy  blowing  bubbles,  by  the  addition  of  an  old  hat, 
longer  skirts  to  the  coat,  a  little  beard  and  a  few  wrinkles,  and 
blending  the  bubbles  into  a  little  cloud,  an  old  man,  smoking  his 
pipe,  may  be  produced.  When  the  second  drawing  is  finished,  cut 
it  out  neatly,  and  paste  it  at  the  back  of  the  first,  with  great  care, 
so  that  the  lines  of  the  original,  and  the  copy  which  has  received 
the  additions,  may  be  exactly  opposite  each  other.  At  the  back  of 
these,  paper  is  to  be  pasted  on,  and  the  production  may  then  be 
used  as  the  interior,  or  centre  ornament  of  a  screen.  When  it  lies 
flat  on  the  table,  or  if  placed  against  the  wall  over  the  chimney- 
piece,  with  the  front  exhibited,  the  first  picture  only  is  seen :  when 
held  against  the  light,  or  fire,  it  changes  into  the  second.  The  taste 
and  ingenuity  of  the  artist  will,  doubtless,  suggest  a  variety  of  de- 
signs, which  will  be  more  elegant  in  the  original,  and  more  amusing 
in  the  change,  than  those  we  have  mentioned.  In  accordance  with 
our  plan  of  leaving  as  much  as  possible  beyond  the  general  mode 
of  operation  to  our  readers,  we  refrain  from  suggesting  any  other 
subject.  Handles  may  be  added,  similar  to  those  of  the  screens 
we  have  before  mentioned,  and  they  may  be  ornamented  in  the 
same  way.  To  strengthen  the  paper  part  of  the  screen,  a  thin 
piece  of  wire,  covered  with  gold  paper,  should  be  fixed  round  its 


LANDSCAPES,  &C.  ON  TRANSPARENT  SCREENS. 

Landscapes,  that  will  appear  like  beautiful  sepia  drawings,  for 
the  embellishment  of  screens,  may  be  made  in  the  following 
manner: — Draw,  and  then  cut  in  paper,  any  kind  of  building, 
taking  care  to  keep  it  in  good  perspective.  On  the  parts  where 


478  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

the  shadows  fall,  paste  pieces  of  paper,  varying  in  thickness  ac- 
cording to  the  deptli  of  the  shadows,  from  coarse  brown  paper 
to  thin  post.  Round  the  mouldings  of  the  windows,  &c.  paste 
narrow  slips;  and,  if  the  requisite  depth  of  shade  should  not  be 
produced,  paste  other  slips,  of  equal  or  less  thickness,  until  the 
part  is  deepened  to  the  proper  tone.  Foliage,  water,  and  clouds, 
maybe  very  effectively  indicated  by  the  same  means;  the  shape 
of  their  shadows  being  cut  out  and  pasted  on  as  above  directed ; 
and  where  these  shadows  become  deeper,  other  pieces  of  paper  of 
a  less  size  are  to  be  cut  out  and  pasted  on  as  before ;  thus,  not 
only  the  mere  masses,  but  all  the  variations  of  light  and  shade 
may  be  produced ;  as.  also,  the  nice  gradations  and  soft  blending 
of  one  into  another,  as  well  as  the  abrupt  projections.  A  moon- 
light view  produces  the  best  effect  when  the  shadows  are  suffi- 
ciently strong,  which  may  be  ascertained  by  holding  the  work 
opposite  a  good  light.  Paste  it  between  thin  paper,  and  at  the  corner 
from  whence  the  light  proceeds,  put  a  round  spot  of  oil  or  varnish, 
to  imitate  the  moon.  The  landscape  may  also  be  improved  by 
putting  a  little  varnish  round  the  edges  of  the  lightest  parts  with 
a  camel's-hair  pencil.  It  may  be  formed  into  screens,  and  deco- 
rated and  strengthened  in  the  manner  described  under  the  head 
of  Transparent  Screens.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  that 
the  landscape  can  only  be  seen  when  the  screen  is  held  up  between 
a  light  and  the  spectator;  nothing,  however,  must  be  drawn  or 
fixed  to  its  surface ;  but  the  edges  may  be  elegantly  embellished. 

EMBOSSING    ON   CARD. 

Various  devices  of  flowers,  leaves,  wreaths,  &c.  may  be  em- 
bossed on  card-board,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  ornamental 
borders,  groupes  of  flowers,  centres  of  hand-screens,  &c.  by  raising 
the  design  on  the  surface  of  the  card  with  a  penknife.  The 
subject  should  not  be  sketched  in  pencil,  as  it  would  be  difficult  to 
rub  out  the  outline  afterwards  without  destroying  the  embossing: 
but  the  blunt  point  of  a  tracing-needle  may  be  employed  for  this 
purpose.  The  penknife  should  be  held  in  a  sloping,  01  nearly  flat 
position,  with  the  edge  towards  you;  and  the  flowers  are  formed 
by  making  a  series  of  slanting  incisions  in  an  oblique  direction, 
so  as  to  raise  the  face  of  the  card  a  little.  A  stalk  may  be  formed 
by  cutting  a  series  of  waving  lines;  small  rosettes,  or  flowers  of  a 
star  shape,  are  made  by  small  circular  incisions;  leaves,  like  those 
of  the  fern,  are  composed  of  one  long  incision  down  the  middle, 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  479 

and  a  succession  of  short  ones  up  the  sides.  In  cutting  rosettes 
it  is  better  to  hold  the  knife  still  and  move  the  card  round: 
an  infinite  variety  of  forms  may  be  produced  by  varying  the 
length  and  shape  of  the  incisions.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
cut  through  to  the  back  of  the  card,  and  the  penknife  must  be 
of  that  kind  which  is  called  sabre-pointed, 

PIERCING    COSTUMES   ON  PAPER. 

Turkish  or  other  figures,  in  Oriental  costume  or  draperies,  are 
produced  by  a  combination  of  water-colour  painting,  for  the  fea- 
tures, with  a  series  of  small  punctures  made  with  needles  of 
various  sizes,  for  the  dresses.  The  face,  hands,  and  feet  being  first 
drawn  and  coloured,  the  outline  and  folds  of  the  drapery  are  marked 
with  a  tracing-needle,  the  paper  is  then  laid  on  a  piece  of  smooth 
cloth,  or  a  few  sheets  of  blotting-paper,  and  the  punctures  inserted 
in  the  folds  of  the  dress,  from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  paper;  the 
drawing  is  then  laid  with  its  surface  downwards,  and  the  interior 
of  the  various  outlines  filled  up  with  punctures  made  with  a  very 
fine  needle,  from  the  back  to  the  front  of  the  paper.  It  sometimes 
affords  a  pleasing  variety,  if  the  costume  be  wholly  or  partially 
coloured,  as  it  relieves  the  monotony  of  the  white.  Needles  of 
various  sizes  should  be  used  at  discretion,  and  the  whole  of  the 
backrground  or  body  of  the  paper  painted  in  some  sober  opaque 
colour,  to  throw  up  the  figure. 

CHARADE     FLOWERS. 

Cut  a  piece  of  any  coloured  paper  in  an  oblong  form.  Rule  a 
very  light  pencil  line  along  the  middle  of  it,  lengthwise,  and, 
taking  the  centres  in  that  line,  describe  segments  of 
circles  completely  across  the  paper ;  fix  the  compasses 
again  at  the  opposite  side  of  each  segment,  and  join 
the  two  extremities  (Fig.  20;)  the  segments  on  one  side 
of  the  paper  must  then  be  neatly  cut  out  and  the  whole 
piece  creased  by  the  hand.  Run  a  thread  through  the 
part  not  cut  out,  draw  it  into  a  circle,  and  thus  the 
form  of  a  flower  will  be  obtained.  Make  a  handle  of 
wire,  and  fasten  it  to  the  flower,  covering  the  seam 
which  will  be  in  the  centre,  with  a  piece  of  paper  representing  the 
central  filaments  of  the  flower.  The  wire  should  be  covered  with 
thin  green  paper,  or  gauze,  twisted  into  the  shape  of  a  stalk; 


480  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

at  intervals,  introduce  a  leaf  or  two,   formed   likewise  of  green 
paper,  with  a  thin  piece  of  wire  up  the  centre  to  preserve   the 
21  shape  and  resemble  the  stem  (Fig.  21.)  Before 

creasing  the  flower,  charades,  enigmas,  &c. 
should  be  written  on  each  of  the  imitative 
petals.  The  artist  may  carry  her  representa- 
tion of  flowers,  on  the  above  principle,  to  a 
very  considerable  extent.  She  may  use  double, 
or  even  treble  paper,  placing  one  piece  behind 
another;  and,  by  a  judicious  selection  of  co- 
lours may  copy,  not  merely  the  shape,  but 
the  various  tints  of  the  flowers.  She  will  show 
her  good  taste  by  imitating,  as  closely  as 
possible,  the  colours  of  her  original;  instead 
of  substituting  red  for  lilac,  blue  for  green, 
or  yellow  for  vermilion,  &c. 

An  immense  variety  of  other  elegant  and  useful  articles  may 
be  constructed  of  pasteboard  and  paper;  indeed,  the  application  of 
the  art  is  so  extensive,  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  us  to  afford 
space  for  describing  an  hundredth  part  of  the  various  works  in 
those  materials  which  have  fallen  beneath  our  notice.  The  ele- 
mentary principles  of  the  art  may  be  sufficiently  acquired  by 
constructing  the  articles  which  we  have  described,  to  enable  the 
young  artist  to  copy  others,  or  to  fabricate  and  embellish  novel- 
ties of  her  own  invention.  Working  in  pasteboard  is  by  no  means 
restricted  to  trifling  productions:  very  elaborate  and  exquisitely- 
finished  architectural  subjects,  ingenious  models  of  the  most  deli- 
cate works,  grottoes,  trees,  &c.  and  even  views  on  an  extensive  scale, 
may  be  admirably  executed  in  parchment  or  paper,  either  in  a 
plain  state,  or  coloured  to  imitate  the  objects  represented.  The 
attempt  to  describe  the  mode  of  constructing  such  a  class  of  works, 
would  be  fruitless;  proficiency  in  this  amusing,  and  we  may 
venture  to  say  instructive,  art,  is  only  to  be  attained  by  practice, 
taste,  and  natural  ingenuity. 

Several  of  the  boxes,  baskets,  &c.  classed  under  the  subsequent 
heads  of  the  Ornamental  Artist,  are  constructed  on  nearly  the 
same  principles,  and  some  of  them  partially  made  of  the  same 
material,  as  many  of  the  articles  described  in  the  preceding  pages ; 
from  such,  therefore,  the  reader  will  derive  a  still  further  insight 
into  the  art  of  working  in  pasteboard. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  481 


MODELLING  IN  GLASS. 

With  a  little  ingenuity,  very  neat  and  elegant  boxes,  and  other 
ornaments,  may  be  constructed  of  glass;  the  parts  being  bound 
together  with  ribbon  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  a  very  pleas- 
ing effect.  Boxes  may  be  made  in  a  variety  of  forms,  according 
to  the  inclination  and  taste  of  the  artist:  we  shall  commence  by 
giving  directions  for  making  one  of  the  most  simple  shape. 

OBLONG    GLASS    BOX. 

Procure  from  a  glass-cutter  the  following  pieces  of  ground 
glass: — four  in  an  oblong  form,  of  precisely  the  same  length  and 
breadth,  for  the  top  and  bottom,  back  and  front;  and  two  others, 
equal  in  depth  to  the  back  and  front,  and  in  breadth  to  the  top 
and  bottom,  for  the  ends.  It  is  indispensable  that  all  the  pieces 
should  be  cut  with  accuracy,  otherwise  it  will  be  impossible  to  put 
them  together  so  as  to  produce  a  correct  shape:  the  artist  should, 
therefore,  send  patterns  in  pasteboard,  the  accuracy  of  which  she 
has  previously  proved.  The  next  step  is  to  bind  the  edges  of 
each  of  the  pieces  with  narrow  ribbon.  The  mode  of  doing 
this  is  very  simple:  begin  at  one  corner  of  the  glass  with  one 
end  of  the  ribbon,  and  thence  carry  it  round  the  entire  edge  of 
the  piece  of  glass,  until  it  is  brought  to  the  corner  from  which  you 
commenced,  where  the  two  ends  must  be  neatly  and  firmly  sewn 
together.  It  is  necessary  to  bring  the  ribbon  round  as  tightly  as 
possible,  and  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  glass  in  the  centre  of  its 
breadth.  Having  done  this,  the  ribbon  is  to  be  pressed  down  on 
each  side  of  the  glass;  it  should  then  be  plaited  at  each  of  the 
corners;  the  plaits  must  be  fastened  with  a  stitch  or  two  of  silk; 
and  when  the  last  of  them  is  done,  the  inner  edges  of  the  ribbon 
will  be  stretched  so  as  to  lie  close  to  the  surface  of  the  glass,  which 
will  thus  be  completely  and  securely  bound.  Silk  of  precisely  the 
same  colour  as  the  ribbon  should  be  used  in  sewing  the  corners, 
and  the  ribbon  should  be  kept  tight,  and  stitched  securely  at  the 
plaits,  otherwise  the  box,  when  complete,  will  not  be  sufficiently 
firm  to  retain  its  shape. 

All  the  pieces,  being  bound  in  this  manner,  are  to  be  succes- 
sively stitched  together,  in  their  proper  situations,  by  the  bindings. 
The  stitches  are  only  to  be  inserted  at  the  corners :  they  must  be 
drawn  tolerably  tight,  and  may  be  concealed  by  little  bows  of  ribbon, 


489. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


or  rosettes.  The  box  is  then  to  be  mounted  on  small  knobs  or  pe- 
destals, of  ivory  or  wood,  pierced  round  their  upper  edges,  and 
fastened  with  sewing  silk  to  the  binding  of  the  four  corners  of  the 
bottom;  to  the  interior  of  which,  a  cushion  of  wadding  or  wool, 
covered  with  quilted  silk,  may  be 
tacked.  The  back  part  of  the  lid, 
after  being  bound,  is  to  be  stitched 
at  the  corners  to  those  of  the  back ; 
thus  hinges  of  sewing  silk  will  be 
formed.  To  lift  the  cover,  a  bit  of 
ribbon,  terminating  in  a  bow  or 
rosette,  must  be  tacked  to  the  centre 
of  its  front  binding;  and  for  the 
convenience  of  suffering  it  to  remain  open,  the  cover  may  be 
prevented  from  falling  back  by  two  pieces  of  ribbon,  of  equal  length, 
being  tacked  to  the  corners  of  the  front  and  the  front  corners  of 
the  lid.  The  box  is  now  complete,  and  will  form  rather  an  elegant 
ornament  to  the  toilet  (Fig.  1.) 


GLASS    BOXES    WITH    RAISED    COVERS. 

A  box,  very  superior  in  appearance  to  the  foregoing  one  (which 
we  have  described  rather  on  account  of  its  simplicity  than  for  any 
beauty  in   its  shape),  may  be   made,  with  a  very  little  additional 
2  trouble.      Let   the    bottom    be   cut    square;    the 

front,  back  and  sides  of  equal  lengths,  but  rather 
less  in  depth  than  the  breadth  of  the  bottom. 
The  pieces  are  to  be  bound,  fastened  together, 
mounted  on  pedestals,  and  ornamented  as  the 
box  before  described.  The  top  consists  of  five  pieces  of  glass;  four 
of  them  cut  as  fig.  2, — being  as  broad  at  a  as  the  lower  part  of  the 
box, — and  the  fifth  a  square,  having  all 
its  sides  equal  to  the  breadtli  of  the 
other  four  at  6.  The  five  sides  are  to 
be  bound  and  fastened  together  at  the 
corners ;  each  of  the  large  pieces  form- 
ing one  side  of  the  cover,  and  the  little 
square  one,  being  fixed  to  them  by  their 
upper  edges,  constituting  its  top.  All 
the  corners  are  to  be  ornamented  with  bows,  or  rosettes,  and  the 
cover  fastened  on  with  a  ribbon  to  raise  it,  and  others  to  prevent 
it  falling  back,  in  the  manner  before  described  (Fig,  3.) 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


483 


TEMPLE,  OR  COTTAGE  BOXES. 

The  covers  of  these  may  be  made  to  resemble  in   shape  the 
roof  of  a  cottage,  or  temple.      In  the  former  case,  the  lower  part  of 
4  the  box  must  be  longer  and  rather  narrower,  and 

/  \  the  cover  be  made  of  four  pieces  only; — two  in  a 

triangular  shape,  as  fig.  4,  a,  for  the  ends,  of  the 
same  breadth  at  the  bottom  as  the  ends  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  box ;   and  two  others,  as  6,  for 
the  sides,  equal  in  length  to  the  sides  of  the  box, 
and  in   depth,  to  that  of  the  sides  of  the  triangular  pieces.      If  it 
5  be  intended  to  make  the  box  in  the  form 

of  a  temple,  the  lower  part  may  be  cut  in 
a  square  or  an  oblong  shape,  either  in 
front  or  at  the  sides.  The  top  is  made 
nearly  as  the  preceding  one,  except  that 
triangular  pieces  of  less  depth  must  form 
the  front  and  back,  as  fig.  5,  c,  and  broader 


pieces  for  the  sides  of  the  box,  as  fig.  5,  d. 


DIAMOND    BOXES. 

Another  variety  of  shape  is  the  diamond.  For  a  box  in  this 
form,  the  front  and  back  must  each  consist  of  two  oblong  pieces, 
cut  exactly  alike.  They  are  first  to  be 
joined  together  at  the  edges,  and  then 
fastened  by  their  lower  binding  to  the 
sides  of  the  bottom,  which  should  be  dia- 
mond-shaped, and  having  each  of  its  sides 
equal  to  the  length  of  each  of  the  oblong 
pieces  for  the  front  and  back.  The  cover 
may  be  either  flat,  and  cut  in  a  diamond 
shape,  or  it  may  be  made  of  four  triangular 
pieces,  of  equal  size,  and  corresponding  in  breadth  with  the  pieces 
at  the  front  and  back:  it  should  be  tacked  to  the  corner,  in  the 
centre  of  the  back,  and  the  two  stays  fastened  to  each  end  (Fig.  6.) 
It  is,  however,  better  to  make  it  rnoveable. 


OCTAGON    BOXES. 


The  octagon  is  a  very  graceful  form  for  a  glass  box  :  its  bottom 
must  be  shaped  as  fig.  7,  a,  and  its  sides  equal  squares,  as   6,  or 
41 


484  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

oblong,  as  c,  to  match  the  edges  of  the  bottom.  The  cover  may 
be  flat,  and  made  of  a  single  piece  resembling  the  bottom,  or  it 
may  be  raised,  as  the  top  of  die  temple,  or 

Qc          cottage  box;  in  this  case,  it  must  consist 
I |       of  eight  triangles,  the  base  of  each  of 

which  should  be  equal  to  one  of  the  sides 
of  the  bottom,  as  d.  Instead  of  bringing 
them  to  a  point,  which  is  rather  a  difficult 
task,  it  is  advisable  to  cut  off  the  ends  of 
the  several  pieces,  as  e,  and  fit  in  a  small 
octagon  at  the  top.  The  cover  may  be  fastened  at  the  corners  of 
one  of  the  sides,  and  the  stays  fixed  where  the  artist  discovers 
they  will  best  keep  it  in  equilibrium  when  opened. 


HARLEQUIN    BOXES. 

When  the  fair  artificer, — to  use  an  old  writer's  phrase,  on  a 
very  different  subject  to  that  on  which  we  are  now  treating, — hath 
travelled  thus  far; — when  she  is  able  to  make  boxes  in  the  forms 
we  have  described,  she  may  vary  the  shapes  as  well  as  ornaments. 
A  harlequin-box  may  be  made  in  any  form  we  have  described,  or 
even  in  a  more  complicated  one:  it  should  be  hound  with  ribbon 
of  any  two  different  colours,  which,  when  placed  in  juxia-position, 
will  be  gratifying  to  the  eye  of  taste.  The  binding  on  one  edge 
should  be  one  of  the  colours  selected;  and  that  of  the  binding,  to 
which  it  is  tacked,  of  the  other;  so  also  should  be  the  upper 
edge  of  the  box  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  cover.  The  rosettes, 
or  bows,  must  exhibit  an  union  of  the  two  colours;  a  third  may 
even  be  added;  or  they  may  be  made  entirely  of  one  colour, 
different  from,  but  still  harmonizing,  or  judiciously  contrasting 
with,  those  of  the  binding.  It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  the 
colours  must  be  selected  with  judgment,  otherwise  they  will  make 
the  box  a  mere  showy,  vulgar  gew-gaw. 

BOXES   WITH  BINDINGS  IN  VANDYKES   AND   SCALLOPS. 

Vandykes  and  scallops  may  be  made  in  the  bindings  of  the 
boxes,  either  when  the  ribbon  is  only  of  one,  or  when  of  two  or 
more  colours ;  for  this  purpose  it  must,  however,  be  rather  broader 
than  in  other  cases.  The  Vandykes,  or  scallops,  may  be  cut  before 
or  after  the  binding  is  sewed  on.  Taste  and  propriety  must 
govern  the  artist  in  the  application  of  these  ornaments  ;  she  would 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  485 

render  herself  obnoxious  to  criticism,  were  she  to  scallop  the 
binding  of  a  diamond-shaped  box,  and  also, — but  the  offence 
would  not  be  so  great, — were  she  to  Vandyke  that  of  an  octagon. 
In  all  cases  it  is  proper  that  the  ornaments  should  in  some  measure 
correspond  with  the  shape.  A  box  in  the  form  of  a  temple,  for 
instance,  would  look  ridiculous  were  it  to  be  vandyked,  and  set  off 
with  parti-coloured  rosettes;  while  Vandyke  bindings,  and  ribbons 
of  various  colours,  would  be  legitimate  ornaments  for  one  of  a 
diamond  shape.  A  temple-shaped  box  should  be  bound  with 
ribbons  of  one  colour  only. 

BOXES  WITH  BEAD  OR  SHELL  TRIMMINGS. 

Beads,  bugles,  or  small  shells,  may  be  used  to  ornament  the 
edges  of  glass  boxes.  The  beads,  or  bugles,  should  be  strung  on 
silk,  and  then  tacked  round  the  edge  of  each  of  the  pieces  of  the 
box,  so  that,  when  put  together,  two  rows  of  beads  or  bugles  will 
appear  at  every  angle.  If  shells  be  used,  they  must  be  gummed 
to  the  bindings,  in  regular  order,  after  the  box  is  \  ut  together. 

MIRROR    AND    PINCUSHION    BOXES. 

Looking-glass  may  be  employed  for  the  sides,  front,  and  corners 
of  the  box,  instead  of  ground  glass,  and  the  edges  ornamented 
with  strips  of  embossed  gold  paper;  or  a 
piece  of  looking-glass,  as  large  as  the  bottom 
of  the  box,  may  be  bound  and  embellished 
in  a  similar  manner,  and  fastened  inside 
the  top,  by  tacking  the  corners  of  its  bind- 
ing to  that  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  cover. 
The  mirror-box,  if  made  in  the  latter  way, 
should  stand  open,  and  the  cushion  may  be 
made  into  a  pincushion,  by  stuffing  it  with 
sufficient  wool  or  wadding  to  raise  the  top  of 
it  to  the  edges  of  the  box,  and  covering  it 
with  plain,  instead  of  gathered  silk  (Fig.  8.)  The  centre  of  the 
cushion  may  be  ornamented  with  a  bow,  or  rosette ; 
or  if  the  binding  be  vandyked,  and  of  two  co- 
lours, with  a  star  (Fig.  9,)  formed  of  the  two 
ribbons  used  for  the  binding,  decreasing  gradually 
in  size,  and  pinned  through  their  centres.  The 
cover  of  the  pincushion  may  also  be  made  of  tri- 
angular pieces  of  silk,  of  different  colours,  to  match  with  the 
harlequin  binding. 


486  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


PAINTED-GLASS    JEWEL    BOXES. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  describe  a  glass  box,  superior  in 
beauty,  as  well  as  size,  to  any  of  the  preceding;  in  the  embellish- 
ment of  which,  the  artist  may  exhibit  specimens  of  her  talent  as 
a  painter  on  glass.  The  best  shape  for  a  box  of  this  description  is 
an  octagon.  The  bottom  may  be  made  of  wood,  entirely  covered 
with  silk ;  and  the  pedestals  should  be  firmly  screwed  or  glued  to 
it,  by  the  person  from  whom  the  wood  is 
procured.  Each  of  the  sides  should  have 
one  or  more  figures  painted  on  it,  in  strik- 
ing and  beautiful  colours.  A  fine  shell  may 
be  depicted  on  one  side ;  a  bird  with  bril- 
liant plumage  on  another ;  a  flower  of  lively 
hue  on  a  third ;  a  gorgeous  butterfly  on  a 
fourth,  &c.  (Fig.  10.)  But  all  these,  as 
well  as  any  other  pictorial  embellishments, 
should  be  drawn  and  coloured  from  nature, 
or  good  copies,  and  not  endowed  with  forms 
or  hues  by  the  caprice  of  the  artist ;  who  may 
depend,  that  however  fine  her  imagination 
may  be,  she  can  never  equal  the  variety, 
excellence,  and  harmony  of  nature.  The 
sides  should  be  bound  with  ribbon,  of  a  colour  that  will  accord 
with,  but  not  subdue  the  paintings:  they  are  to  be  tacked  firmly 
to  the  silk  that  covers  the  bottom,  which  ought  to  be  well  strained 
over  the  wood.  For  better  security,  a  wire,  covered  with  silk  or 
ribbon,  and  accurately  bent  into  an  octagon  shape  of  the  proper 
admeasurement,  and  fastened  at  the  ends,  may  be  carried  round 
the  inside  upper  edge  of  the  box,  and  sewed  to  the  bindings.  Com- 
partments may  be  made  of  pasteboard,  covered  with  puffed-silk, 
over  wadding,  or  wool,  placed  in  the  interior,  and  tacked  to  each 
other  and  to  the  binding.  A  better  plan,  however,  is  to  make  sides 
to  the  compartments  of  pasteboard  (Fig.  11,) 
covered  with  plain  silk  of  a  light  gray  colour,  to 
resemble  the  ground  glass  on  the  outer  side; 
and  on  the  inner,  with  puffed  silk,  like  the  rest  of 
the  lining.  The  compartments  and  sides  should 
be  pasted  securely  together,  so  as  to  be  independent  of  the 
glass  box,  into  which  they  may  be  placed  without  difficulty.  The 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  487 

cover  may  be  made  of  one  entire  piece  of  strong  ground  glass, 
well  bound  witli  ribbon,  and  embellished  with  a  groupe  of  shells  or 
birds,  or  a  bouquet  of  flowers,  with  butterflies  or  brilliant  insects 
among  their  leaves.  Should  a  raised  top  be  preferred,  it  is  to 
be  made  of  an  octagon  shape;  for  the  construction  of  which, 
directions  have  been  given  in  a  previous  page.  A  wire  may  be 
added  to  the  bottom  of  the  cover,  similar  to  that  at  the  upper 
edge  of  the  box;  and  all  the  sides  should  be  painted  to  correspond 
with  those  below.  Any  other  shape  may  be  adopted  for  this 
kind  of  box;  but  the  octagon,  or  hexagon,  is  to  be  preferred. 

ENGRAVED-GLASS    JEWEL    BOXES. 

These  are  made  as  the  preceding  boxes;  engraved  glass  being 
substituted  for  painted,  stained,  ground,  or  plain.  Pieces  of  glass 
may  be  purchased  at  any  of  the  fancy  shops,  with  different  sub- 
jects engraved  upon  them.  There  is  no  very  great  difficulty 
attendant  on  executing  the  engravings;  but  the  operation  is  rather 
dangerous,  unless  performed  with  care,  and  by  an  experienced 
person.  We  cannot  recommend  our  readers  to  attempt  it:  it  is, 
therefore,  unnecessary  to  describe  the  process. 

The  engravings  ought  not  to  be  a  jumble  of  landscapes  and 
single  figures, — a  bust  on  one  side,  and  an  extensive  view  on  the 
other;  but  all  of  them  should  be  of  the  same  character.  The 
ornaments  should  be  simple,  and  the  binding  by  no  means  gay. 

HARLEQUIN    AND    MIRROR    JEWEL    BOXES. 

The  jewel  box  may  be  made  entirely,  or  in  part,  with  looking- 
glass,  embellished  with  gold  on  the  bindings,  and  having  a  set  of 
pasteboard  partitions  suitable  to  its  form,  which  is  to  be  governed 
by  the  fancy  of  its  maker.  The  harlequin  jewel  box  may  be 
hexagon,  octagon,  diamond,  or  even  oblong,  with  its  front  and 
sides  formed  of  triangular  pieces,  bound  and  sewn  together  (see 
fig.  12.)  Whatever  may  be  its  form,  the 
harlequin  jewel  box  should  be  made  of 
stained  glass, — the  various  pieces  being 
of  different  colours;  but  judgment  and 
taste  must  guide  the  constructer,  in 
selecting  them,  as  well  as  in  the  choice 
of  ribbons  for  the  binding:  the  latter  should  be  vandyked,  and 
finished  with  very  small  stars  at  the  corners. 
41* 


488 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


The  divisions  in  the  interior  of  the  harlequin  and  mirror,  as 
well  as  all  the  other  glass  boxes,  may  be  made  to  suit  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  owners ;  but  the  compartments  should  correspond  with 
the  shape  of  the  box:  thus, — if  the  box  be  octagon,  the  divisions 
should  be  somewhat  in  the  same  style;  should  its  length  exceed 
its  breadth,  they  ought  to  assume  the  oblong  form;  if  it  be  diamond, 
the  triangular.  The  character  of  each  may  be  easily  maintained, 
and  the  size  of  the  compartments,  at  the  same  time,  be  accom- 
modated to  the  shape  of  the  articles  they  are  intended  to  receive. 
(Figs.  13, 14, 15,  oblongs;  16, 17, 18,  diamonds;  19, 20, octagons ; 
21,  hexagon.) 

19 


The  plans  of  each  variety  of  shape,  are  not  restricted  to  those 
above  delineated:  they  are  merely  specimens,  which  may  be 
greatly  diversified  without  losing  their  respective  general  cha- 
racters of  shape. 


GLASS   JEWEL   BOXES,  WITH  PAINTINGS  ON  VELVET. 

These  are  to  be  made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  painted- 
glass  boxes;  except  that,  instead  of  ground,  plain  plate  glass  must 
be  used.  They  afford  an  opportunity  for  a  tasteful  display  of  the 
artist's  talent  as  a  painter  on  velvet.  The  subjects  chosen  should 
be  similar  to  those  mentioned  for  the  designs  on  ground  glass.  The 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


489 


velvet  paintings  are  to  be  stitched  to  the  corners  of  the  binding  of 
each  piece  of  glass,  before  the  box  is  put  together:  it  is  to  be 
entirely  lined  with  silk  previously  to  the  partitions  being  inserted. 
The  bindings  should  be  of  the  most  chaste  and  delicate  colours. 
The  observations  as  to  the  cover,  &c.  of  the  painted-glass  boxes, 
apply  to  these,  which  perhaps  excel  any  of  the  boxes  we  have 
hitherto  described.  A  box  may  be  made  in  this  manner  on  the 
same,  or  a  smaller  scale,  for  a  splendid  pincushion;  for  this 
purpose,  a  case  to  fit  the  interior,  made  of  stout  pasteboard,  and 
well  stuffed,  should  be  inserted,  and  covered  with  a  piece  of  velvet, 
on  which  a  groupe  of  shells  or  flowers  is  painted;  and  on  the  inside 
of  the  cover  a  piece  of  looking-glass  should  be  fastened,  bound 
and  ornamented  at  the  edges  with  dead  gold  paper,  embossed, 
scalloped,  or  plain,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  artist. 


GLASS    PICTURE    FRAMES. 

A  frame  for  a  picture,  or  case  for  a  bust,  may  be  produced 
from  four  pieces,  cut  as  a  (Fig.  22,)  bound,  and  sewn  together 
at  their  ends,  b  bj  a  piece,  as  c,  which  will 
serve  as  the  glass  in  front  of  the  picture  or 
bust,  fastened  by  its  binding  to  the  inner  edges 
of  the  pieces,  a;  four  other  pieces,  as  d,  which 
are  to  be  sewn  together  by  the  bindings  at  their 
ends,  and  then  fastened  in  like  manner,  by  the 
inner  edges,  to  the  square  formed  by  the  pieces 
marked  as  four  more,  of  equal  size,  to  form  the  bottom,  top  and 
sides,  which  are  to  be  fastened  to  the  outer  edges  of  the  pieces,  d; 
the  centre  glass  must  be  depressed, 
and  the  inner  pieces  of  the  frame 
placed  in  a  slanting  direction  towards 
it :  the  outer  parts,  d,  forming  an 
obtuse  angle  with  them,  and  being 
placed  square  on  them  and  the  sides. 
A  portrait  in  stained  glass,  a  small 
painting  on  velvet,  or  a  miniature ;  a 
beautiful  medallion,  or  a  bust  in  wax, 
may  now  be  put  behind  the  glass 
(Fig.  23,)  and  the  frame  or  case  com- 
pleted, by  adding  a  back  of  stout 
pasteboard  or  wood,  bound  and  sewn  to  the  edges  of  the  sides. 
The  bottom,  top,  and  sides  of  a  case  for  a  bust  must  be  deeper 


490 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


than  those  for  a  frame ;  and  so  also  should  the  parts  a;  the  inside 
of  the  back  must  be  lined,  and  have  a  small  shelf  or  pedestal 
fixed  to  it,  for  the  bust  to  rest  on ;  any  appropriate  ornaments  may 
be  placed  at  the  corners,  to  conceal  the  scams.  If  a  frame,  a  loop 
may  be  fixed  in  the  back  to  suspend  it  by ;  and  if  a  case,  pedestals 
may  be  fastened  to  the  bottom,  which  will  be  more  convenient 
if  made  of  wood.  The  piece,  c,  in  front  of  the  picture  or  bust, 
should,  of  course,  be  plain  plate  glass;  the  front,  sides,  &c.  may 
be  ground,  stained,  or  of  looking-glass. 


GLASS    BASKETS. 

Baskets  in  a  variety  of  elegant  forms,  adapted  both  for  use  and 
ornament,  may  be  constructed  of  glass,  ribbon,  &c.  on  the  same 
principles  as  boxes.  To  describe,  or  even  enumerate  all  the 
shapes  in  which  glass  baskets  are  made,  would  be  needless,  and 
encroach  upon  our  limits:  they  admit  of  almost  every  com- 
bination of  figure,  and  afford  a  good  opportunity  for  the  display  of 
taste  and  elegance  in  their  construction.  We  shall  offer  a  few 
select  patterns  only,  which  maybe  copied  with  advantage;  and 
various  improvements  may  be  made  upon  each  of  them,  before 
any  decidedly  new  combinations  of  form  are  attempted. 

For  the  first  shape  which  occurs  to  us,  the  following  pieces  of 
glass  are  to  be  procured: — A  front  and  back,  matching  exactly 
with  each  other,  as  a,  fig.  24;  two  ends,  as  6,  the  sides  of  which 
must  be  of  the  same  length  as  the 
two  lower  sides  of  the  back  and 
front,  represented  in  dotted  lines 
(Fig.  24,  a)  ;  an  oblong  piece  for 
the  bottom,  the  sides  of  which 
must  be  equal  to  the  lower  edges 
of  the  front  and  back,  and  its  ends 
equal  to  those  of  6;  and  two  other  oblong  pieces  for  the  covers, 
the  sides  of  which  must  be  of  the  same  length  as  each  of 
the  upper  edges  of  the  front  and  back,  a;  and  their  ends  equal 
to  those  of  the  side  pieces,  6.  The  front,  back,  sides,  and  bottom 
of  the  box  are  to  be  fastened  together  by  means  of  narrow 
ribbon,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  different  parts  of  glass 
boxes;  a  piece  of  stout  wire,  covered  with  silk,  is  then  to  be 
fixed  by  its  ends  from  the  upper  point  of  the  back  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  front;  and  to  this  wire  the  two  covers,  c,  after  being 
neatly  bound  with  ribbon,  are  to  be  fastened  by  the  upper  corners 


\ 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  491 

of  their  binding,  either  with  hinges  of  strong  silk  or  fine  tough 
wire.  The  handle  may  be  made  of  pasteboard,  strengthened  with 
wire,  covered  with  silk,  and  sewn  by  its  ends  to  the  upper  points 
of  the  back  and  front.  The  interior  of  the 
basket  may  be  lined  with  puffed  silk  and 
wadding,  or  in  any  other  manner  that  fancy 
may  dictate;  all  the  edges  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  basket,  the  covers,  and  the  handle, 
should  then  be  furnished  with  fringed  ribbon, 
or  fringed  silk,  tacked  to  the  binding;  and 
if  the  glass  be  plain,  a  fine  medallion,  en- 
circled by  a  wreath  of  roses,  &c.  in  wax,  or 
rice  paper,  or  a  fine  bouquet  of  flowers 
only,  may  be  gummed  to  the  centre  of  the 
front  and  back  pieces  (Fig.  25.)  Trans- 
parent glass  may  also  be  used,  and  the  interior  parts  decorated 
with  paintings  on  velvet;  or  the  various  pieces  which  compose 
the  basket  may  be  formed  of  painted,  instead  of  transparent  or  plain 
ground  glass.  The  edges  and  handle  may  also  be  ornamented  in 
a  variety  of  modes,  and  with  various  neat  and  elegant  trimmings. 
A  basket  of  a  more  difficult  construction  may 
be  made  in  the  following  manner: — Procure, 
for  the  top  and  bottom,  two  octagon  pieces, 
as  a  (Fig.  26) ;  and  for  the  sides,  which  are 
formed  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  series,  sixteen 
pieces,  as  6  6;  the  narrow  edges  of  all  these  must  be  equal  to  the 
several  sides  of  the  top  and  bottom  pieces,  a  :  being  first  separately 
bound  with  narrow  ribbon,  they  are  to 
be  tacked  in  pairs  by  their  wide  ends, 
and  then  fastened  together  by  the  sides 
of  each  pair ;  the  bottom  piece  is  also  to 
be  bound  and  fixed  in  the  usual  manner 
to  the  ends  of  the  lower  series  of  side 
pieces.  The  top  must  be  fastened  with 
silk  ribbon  or  wire  hinges,  by  its  binding, 
in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  fall  upon 
and  rest  on  the  inside  of  the  edges  of 
the  upper  series  of  side  pieces.  The 
handle  may  be  formed  of  pasteboard  and 
wire,  covered  with  silk,  and  sewn  firmly  to  the  edges  of  the  basket. 
(Fig.  27.)  The  whole  of  the  binding,  and  the  sides  of  the  handles, 
may  then  be  ornamented  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 


492 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


basket  first  described;  the  glass  may  be  either  plain,  ground, 
painted,  or  transparent,  with  small  paintings  on  velvet  inside;  the 
lining  may  be  puffed  or  plain,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
maker. 

Another  basket,  which  may,  by  some  persons,  be  considered 
of  a  superior  form,  is  made  precisely  in 
a  similar  way  to  the  one  we  have  just 
described,  with  this  addition;  namely, 
— that  a  row  of  oblong  pieces,  equal  in 
length  to  the  upper  edges  of  the  lower 
series,  and  the  lower  edges  of  the  upper 
series  of  side  pieces,  are  carried  entirely 
round  the  centre  of  the  basket,  fastened 
to  each  other  by  the  ends,  and  to  the 
pieces  above  and  below  them,  by  their 
sides.  These  oblong  pieces  are  usually 
ornamented  with  a  running  pattern, 
worked  in  rice  paper  on  their  surface, 
on  velvet  inside  them,  or  otherwise, 
according  to  the  taste  and  powers  of  the  artist  (Fig.  28.) 

A  very  elegant  basket  may  also  be  made  in  an  octagon  or  hex- 
agon shape,  with  the  sides  cut  as  in  fig.  29:  these  may  be  bound  and 
29  fastened  together  in  the  manner  we  have  before 

directed  in  other  cases;  or  ribbon  may  be 
gummed  round  the  edges  of  each  piece,  and 
when  dry,  other  slips  of  ribbon  may  be  fastened 
to  them  with  gum,  so  as  to  connect  the  side 
pieces  at  a  with  the  respective  sides  of  the  bot- 
tom, in  the  manner  of  hinges  ;  ribbons  are  then 
to  be  attached  to  the  points  6  6,  of  the  pieces 
forming  the  sides ;  by  means  of  which  they  are  to  be  tied  together, 
the  fastenings  being  made  to  assume  the  forms  of  elegant  bows ; 
a  piece  of  whalebone,  with  ribbon  twisted  round  it,  or  otherwise 
decorated,  according  to  fancy,  will  form  the  handle :  it  is  to  be  bent 
over  the  basket,  and  tied  down  to  the  bows,  by  which  the  side  pieces 
are  fastened.  The  shape  of  the  basket  may  be  varied  by  making 
the  side  pieces  longer  and  narrower  than  fig.  29;  in  this  case  it 
is  advisable  to  use  plain  glass,  lined  with  paintings  on  velvet.  If 
the  side  pieces  should  be  cut  as  fig.  29,  or  still  broader,  the 
basket  will,  of  course,  be  more  flat  and  open;  and  as  the  inside 
of  it  will  be  most  exposed  to  view,  it  should  be  handsomely  lined 
with  puffed  silk,  or  be  made  of  stained  or  painted  glass. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  493 

Common  glass  may  be  used  for  baskets ;  it  may  also  be  made 
to  resemble  ground  glass,  by  gumming  or  pasting  crepe  lisse  en- 
tirely over  the  surface  of  one  side.  The  ribbon  is  then  attached 
to  the  edges,  as  before  described,  letting  its  edge  on  one  side  neatly 
cover  the  edge  of  the  crepe.  Paintings  may  be  executed  on  the 
crepe  lisse  with  water  colours ; — a  little  gum  being  mixed  with 
the  water  used  in  the  process,  to  prevent  the  colour  from  running. 
One  colour  must  be  allowed  to  dry  before  another  is  laid  over  it. 

Various  other  elegant  ornaments  may  be  formed  of  glass,  as 
allumette  cases,  what-nots,  &c.  by  applying  the  principles  laid 
down  in  the  foregoing  descriptions.  These  and  their  decorations 
we  leave  to  the  reader's  ingenuity  and  taste;  as,  were  we  to 
describe  the  numberless  articles  which  are,  or  might  be  formed  of 
this  beautiful  material,  and  the  combinations  of  ornament  with 
which  they  may  be  embellished,  our  task  would  be  almost  endless. 

MISCELLANEOUS  ORNAMENTS. 

Under  this  head  we  purpose  offering  to  our  readers  descriptions 
of  the  modes  of  making  baskets  in  worsted,  allspice,  lavender, 
straw,  &c.  screens,  of  different  materials;  working  in  gold  thread, 
beads,  bugles,  &c. 

WORSTED    WORK-BASKET. 

This  basket  is  composed  of  a  frame,  or  skeleton,  made  of  round 
bars  of  wicker-work,  and  entirely  covered  with  worsted.  The 
frame  (Fig.  1)  must  be  obtained  of  a  basket-maker.  It  is  to  be 

worked  all  over  with  worsted, 
in  several  shades,  of  any  co- 
lours that  taste  may  suggest; 
as,  for  instance,  five  or  six  of 
the  intermediate  tints,  from 
dark  brown  to  a  pale  yellow 
colour.  A  double  quantity 
of  the  darkest  shade  but  one 
will  be  required,  for  cover- 
ing the  handles  and  rims : 
for  this  purpose,  a  quantity  of  the  worsted  is  placed,  doubled,  in  a 
netting-needle;  and  with  it  the  two  lower  rims  are  wound  round 
as  closely  as  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  showing  the  wicker  between, 
and  yet  so  regularly  that  the  threads  do  not  lie  over  each  other: 


494  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

these  are  then  to  be  wound  with  the  next  shade  lighter,  doubled, 
and  entwined  spirally,  and  about  an  inch  apart,  merely  as  an 
ornament.  The  handles  are  done  in  a  similar  manner.  The  side 
of  the  basket  should  then  be  marked,  up  one  or  more  bars,  with  a 
pen,  into  twice  as  many  equal  parts  as  there  are  shades  of  worsted. 
The  work  is  then  to  be  commenced  at  the  bottom  by  entwining  the 
darkest  colour  round  the  bars,  in  the  manner  we  shall  presently 
describe,  to  the  extent  of  one  division;  the  lighter  shades  follow 
in  succession  to  the  middle,  where  they  are  to  be  gradually  dark- 
ened again  to  the  top.  The  mode  of  winding  the  worsted  on  the 
sides  is  very  simple:  the  proper  shade  is  taken  in  the  netting- 
needle  single,  and  having  tied  the  end  to  a  bar,  the  needle  is 
passed  from  the  inside  of  the  basket  over  the  next  bar;  the 
worsted  is  entwined  round  that  bar,  brought  inside  the  basket 
again,  passed  over  the  following  bar,  and  thus  round  the  basket 
until  it  is  entirely  covered:  the  space  between  the  two  lower  rims 
should  be  covered  first,  in  two  of  the  lighter  shades.  The  ends 
of  the  different  shades  must  be  tied  together  with  great  neatness, 
so  that  the  knots  may  not  be  seen ;  and  with  care,  lest  they  become 
untied  after  the  basket  is  finished.  The  inside  of  the  basket  will 
be  perfectly  smooth,  and  the  shape  of  the  bars  will  appear  on  the 
outside.  The  upper  edge  of  the  basket  may  be  ornamented  wilh 
fringe,  composed  of  loops  made  by  netting  a  portion  of  each  shade 
of  the  worsted  on  a  thread  of  strong  silk,  with  a  mesh  of  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  wide,  keeping  the  loops  close  together,  so  as 
to  produce  a  very  full  and  rich  appearance.  The  top  rim  must 
be  measured  and  divided  into  three  parts,  and  each  third  sub- 
divided into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  shades  in  the  worsted 
used  for  the  sides,  and  all  the  shades  should  occur  successively 
in  each  of  the  three  parts.  The  netting  is  wound  round  closely, 
but  not  too  tightly.  The  different  shades  are  to  be  netted  sepa- 
rately; and  as  each  shade  is  wound  on,  the  end  of  the  silk  on 
which  it  is  netted  must  be  tied  to  the  beginning  of  the  next.  The 
bottom  of  the  basket  should  be  a  piece  of  stiff  pasteboard,  covered 
on  each  side  with  satin  to  harmoni/e  with  the  shades  of  the  sides; 
the  stitches  may  be  hidden  by  a  cord  of  two  shades  of  twisted 
worsted  sewn  on  round  the  inside. 


MOSS   BASKETS. 

The  appearance  of  moss   on  the  outside  of  these  baskets   is 
produced  by  worsted  of  the  same  kind  as  that  used  for  embroidery 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  495 

m  worsted.  Four  or  five  shades  of  green,  and  as  many  of  brown, 
m  regular  gradations,  should  be  selected ;  the  darkest  shades  of 
green  being  of  an  olive  tinge,  and  the  lightest  of  a  yellowish  hue, 
in  preference  to  grass  green,  which  has  not  the  mellow  autumnal 
tint  of  the  colours  before-mentioned.  One  skein  of  each  colour  is 
sufficient  for  a  pair  of  baskets.  The  shape,  or  body  of  the  basket, 
is  formed  of  pasteboard:  it  is  usually  round  or  oval,  and  made 
with  or  without  a  handle  across,  according  to  fancy.  The  paste- 
board shape  is  covered,  inside  and  out,  with  green  silk;  and  if 
a  handle  be  affixed,  it  should  be  sewn  on,  outside,  where  the 
joining  will  be  covered  by  the  moss,  so  that  the  silk  may  appear 
neat  within.  The  worsted  of  each  colour  should  be  wound  into  a 
separate  ball,  and  knitted,  either  flat,  or  round  like  a  stocking; 
a  piece  of  thread  should  then  be  passed,  by  means  of  a  needle, 
through  the  last  row  of  loops,  or  stitches,  and  fastened  at  each 
end,  in  order  to  prevent  the  knitting  from  unravelling.  The 
worsted  should  then  be  thoroughly  wetted  or  soaked  in  warm 
water,  and  placed  in  an  oven  of  gentle  heat  until  perfectly  dry. 
After  this,  the  respective  pieces  must  be  unravelled  and  made  up 
into  small  bunches,  which  are  to  be  sewn  so  thickly  on  the  silk, 
with  which  the  outside  of  the  basket  is  covered,  as  to  leave  no 
apparent  spaces  between  them.  Each  bunch  should  be  composed 
of  about  three  shades  of  colour,  made  up  in  the  following  manner : 
— The  several  pieces  of  knitting  being  selected,  a  few  rows  of  each 
are  to  be  unravelled,  and  all  the  ends  being  taken  up  at  the  same 
time,  are  to  be  held  between  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  and  the 
side  of  the  hand,  as  low  and  near  the  joint  as  possible :  the  upper 
part  of  the  thumb  being  then  slightly  relaxed,  the  worsteds  are, 
2  with  the  right  hand,  wound 

round  the  thumb  and  finger 
of  the  left  hand,  like  a  figure 
of  8,  and  held  in  that  position 
while  the  middle  (including 
the  ends  with  which  it  begun 
and  left  off)  is  sewn  together 
with  a  piece  of  silk.  The 
bunches  should  be  placed  in 
heaps  according  to  their  re- 
spective shades,  and  sewn  on  the  basket  according  to  taste,  inter- 
mingling the  hues  so  as  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  formality.  The 
handle  is  covered  with  bunches  of  the  worsted  in  the  same  way 
as  the  body  of  the  basket  (Fig.  2.) 
42 


496 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


STRAW   BASKETS,  TEMPLES,  &C. 

Procure  some  bundles  of  whole  round  straws,  of  precisely  the 
same  length  and  thickness,  from  a  straw-bonnet  manufactory. 
If  you  determine  that  the  shape  of  your 
intended  basket  shall  be  round,  cut 
out  a  circular  piece  of  pasteboard  for 
the  bottom  (Fig.  3,)  and  another,  ra- 
ther larger,  for  the  upper  part  (Fig.  4) : 
cut  the  interior  of  the  latter  entirely 
out,  leaving  only  a  margin  about  half  an  inch  wide.  Cut  all  the 
straws  the  length  you  intend  the  depth  of  the  basket  to  be:  for 
this  purpose,  use  a  sharp  pair  of  scissors,  of  rather  a  large  size, 
and  handle  the  straws  very  delicately,  as  the  least  rough  usage 
will  split  and  render  them  totally  useless.  With  a  punch,  the 
exact  size  of  the  straws,  make  holes  all  round  the  middle  of  the 
pasteboard  meant  for  the  upper  part  of  the  basket,  and  also  pre- 
cisely the  same  number  round  the  edge  of  the  bottom,  keeping 
them  about  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch  distant  from  each  other, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  basket, — those  at  the  top  being  more 
distant  from  each  other  than  those  at  the  bottom.  Then  take  the 
straws,  one  at  a  time,  and  introduce  one  end  of  each  into  the 
margin  of  the  top,  and  the  other  into  the  bottom  part  of  the  basket, 
leaving  about  half  an  inch  projecting  at  each  end  beyond  the  paste- 
board. If  the  straws  should  be  too  small  for  the  holes,  they  may  be 
fastened  by  a  little  gum.  A  handle  may  be  formed  of  pasteboard, 
gummed  on,  and  decorated  with  gilt  ornaments,  or  bound  over 
with  straws  pressed  flat.  The  beauty  and 
strength  of  the  basket  may  be  increased  by 
entwining  ribbon  among  the  straws;  thus 
producing  a  kind  of  chequered  work  (Fig.  5.) 
One  variety  of  these  baskets  is  made  by  form 
ing  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  same  size;  anc< 
when  the  straws  are  all  put  in,  the  top  and 
bottom  are  twisted  a  little,  in  contrary  direc- 
tions, so  as  make  the  middle  part  appear 
smaller  than  the  sides.  Should  the  artist 
decide  on  making  a  straw  basket  of  any  other  shape,  the  foregoing 
directions  are  to  be  attended  to  without  variation,  except  as  regards 
the  form  of  the  top  and  bottom. 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  497 

To  make  a  cottage  or  temple  ornament,  cut  out  a  piece  of 
pasteboard  for  the  bottom,  as  for  the  baskets,  arranging  the  shape 
according  to  taste,  and  introduce  the  straws  for  the  sides,  in  the 
same  manner  as  directed  for  making  baskets;  and,  if  making  a 
temple,  leave  a  considerable  space  at  one  part  for  the  entrance. 
For  the  roof,  if  a  cottage,  bend  a  piece  of  thick  drawing-paper 
into  the  proper  shape,  and  along  each  side  of  it  make  holes  for 
the  admission  of  the  straws,  which  form  its  sides;  pass  each 
straw  of  the  latter  through  the  holes  made  in  the  former,  which, 
if  well  arranged,  will  hold  it  firmly  together:  by  leaving  a  wide 
margin  to  the  roof,  it  will  overhang  the  sides,  and  form  the 
eaves.  Press  some  straws  flat,  and  gum  them  on  each  side  of  the 
roof;  and  for  the  two  ends,  or,  as  they  are  technically  termed, 
gables,  cut  pieces  of  drawing-paper  to  the  shape  of  the  roof; 
gum  them  on,  and  ornament  them  in  any  fanciful  way,  either 
with  straws  or  otherwise  (Fig.  6.)  A  chimney  may  also  be 
6  made  of  coloured  pasteboard,  and  let  into  the 

roof.  A  good  effect  may  be  produced  by  form- 
ing the  sides  of  a  cottage  with  Bristol-paper, 
painting  the  doors,  windows,  &c.  and  intro- 
ducing it  into  the  interior  of  the  cottage ;  when, 
if  it  be  well  contrived,  the  straws  will  appear 
as  a  portico  round  it.  Very  small  artificial  flowers,  imitating 
woodbine,  &c.  may  be  introduced  among  the  straws,  and  will 
greatly  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  whole.  The  roof  of  a  temple, 
whether  it  be  round  or  hexagonal,  is  to  be  constructed  in  a  similar 
manner  to  that  of  a  cottage:  form  the  pasteboard  on  the  same 
principle;  gum  the  straws  on  the  same  way;  and  to  finish  it,  add 
an  acorn,  or  any  other  little  ornament,  to  the  top. 

LAVENDER  BASKETS. 

These  are  made,  like  straw  baskets,  of  pasteboard ;  but,  instead 
of  a  straw,  two  or  three  stalks  of  lavender  are  to  be  introduced. 
The  appearance  of  these,  when  lined  with  silk,  or 
interwoven  with  ribbon,  is  very  elegant:  they  like- 
wise possess  the  advantage  over  straw  baskets,  of 
diffusing  a  most  pleasant  odour.  The  centre  of  the 
stalks  of  lavender,  between  the  top  and  bottom, 
may  be  bound  with  very  narrow  ribbon,  of  a  deli- 
cate and  appropriate  colour,  neatly  finished  in  rosettes,  or  little 
bows,  in  front.  They  may  be  made  in  a  variety  of  forms  (Fig.  7.) 


498  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST 


ALLSPICE   BASKETS. 

The  allspice  berries  should  be  steeped  in  brandy  for  some 
time,  in  order  to  soften  them,  and  then  perforated  with  a  small 
borer.  The  berries  are  strung  on  a  slender  wire,  sufficient  to 
form  the  circumference  of  die  bottom  of  the  basket,  and  the  ends 
are  neatly  twisted  together  with  a  pair  of  pliers,  and  then  formed 
into  a  round  or  an  oval,  at  discretion.  Wrought  gilt  beads  strung 
between  the  berries,  very  much  improve  the  general  effect  of  the 
basket.  The  interior  of  the  bottom  is  composed  of  wires  strung 
with  the  berries,  and  crossing  each  other  so  as  to  form  dia- 
monds, or  any  more  fanciful  shape.  The  first  row,  for  the  sides, 
consists  of  a  series  of  small  arches,  fixed  at  their  bases  to  the 
bottom  circle,  by  twisting  one  wire  round  the  other.  The  second 
row  consists  of  another  series  of  arches,  the  bases  of  which  are 
fixed  in  a  similar  way  on  the  summits  of  the  first  row ;  a  third 
row,  in  the  same  manner,  completes  the  height  of  the  basket. 
A  series  of  semicircles,  or  bows  of  wire,  strung  with  the  berries, 
is  then  fixed  to  the  top  row,  so  as  to  project  over  the  sides  of 
the  basket:  from  the  extremities  of  these  are  hung  festoons  of 
the  berries,  strung  on  silk.  The  handle  is  made  of  two  wires, 
strung  as  the  others,  and  crossing  each  other  so  as  to  form  a 

succession  of  diamonds.  It  is 
proper  to  string  the  berries  as 
the  bending  of  die  wires  pro- 
ceeds, and  where  the  wires 
cross  each  other,  or  appear  to 
do  so,  a  larger  gilt  bead  should 
be  introduced.  The  interior 
of  the  basket  is  lined  with 
doubled  satin,  gathered  at  top  and  bottom,  and  pulled  in  puffs 
through  the  arches  in  the  sides.  The  whole  is  ornamented  with 
ribbons  and  bows,  according  to  fancy.  (Fig.  8,  Allspice  basket.) 


WAFER  BASKETS. 

Make  a  basket  of  Bristol-paper,  of  any  shape  you  please,  as 
fig.  9,  for  instance ;  then  with  good  wafers,  of  different  colours, 
form  stars  in  die  following  manner,  to  decorate  them  : — Cut  a 
wafer  in  halves,  wet  the  straight  edge  of  one  of  them,  and  stick  it 
directly  across  the  centre  of  a  whole  wafer;  divide  odiers  into 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


499 


quarters,  and  fasten  six  of  such  quarters  to  the  whole  wafer,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  half  one,  at  equal  distances,  so  as  to  form 
a  star  of  eight  rays  (Fig.  10.)  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  stars 
are  made,  wet  the  bottoms  of  the  whole  wafers,  and  arrange  them 
with  taste  on  the  basket,  so  that  the  exterior  of  it  may  be  nearly 
covered  (Fig.  11.) 

11 


A  handle  may  be  formed  of  a  strip  of  Bristol-paper,  decorated  in 
the  same  manner;  or,  rather,  with  small  rosettes  of  narrow  ribbons, 
of  various  colours,  if  it  be  intended  to  be  handled  (Fig.  11.) 


FEATHER  BASKETS. 

Take  the  quill  feathers  of  any  bird  whose  plumage  is  variegated 

or   beautiful;    for    instance,    that    of  the    pheasant:    remove   the 

bottom  or  quill  parts,  and  introduce  the  feathers 

Wto  a  piece  of  pasteboard,  pierced  for  their  recep- 
tion, and  cut  to  whatever  form  you  may  think  fit: 
bend  a  piece  of  wire  into  the  same  form,  but  rather 
larger  than  the  bottom ;   fix  the  ends  together,  and 
fasten  the  feathers  to  it  at  regular  distances  from 
each  other  (Fig.  12.)     A  handle  of  wire,  or  pasteboard,  covered 
with  a   portion  of  skin  with  the   feathers  on   it,   may  be  added. 
The  basket  should  be  lined  with  coloured  silk,  or  gold  paper. 


ALUM  BASKETS,  &C. 

The  method  of  encrusting  baskets  with  alum  is  very  simple ; 
but  success  depends,  in  some  measure,  upon  chance,  as  the  crystals 
will  frequently  crowd  together  in  one  or  two  parts,  and  leave  others 
uncovered.  Dissolve  a  quantity  of  alum  iu  so  much  water,  that 
rather  less  than  half  of  it  will  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  basket. 
As  much  alum  as  can  be  dissolved  must  be  put  in,  so  as  to  make 
what  is  called  a  saturated  solution,  which  must  be  poured  into  a 
saucepan,  or  pipkin,  and  slowly  evaporated,  or  boiled  away,  until 
42  * 


500  1HE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

less  than  half  of  the  original  quantity  remains ;  it  should  then  be 
removed  from  the  fire,  and  poured  into  a  jar  of  a  convenient  shape  : 
the  basket  is  to  be  immersed  in  it,  and  the  jar,  with  its  contents, 
set  aside  to  cool  gradually;  care  being  taken  that  it  is  not  shaken 
or  moved,  otherwise  the  crystals  will  not  form  regularly. 

The  basket,  or  whatever  else  is  intended  to  be  covered,  must 
have  all  the  parts  equally  rough;  so  that  if  wire  be  used  for 
making  the  shape,  it  should  either  be  filed,  or  covered  all  over 
with  worsted;  common  willow  baskets,  however,  answer  die 
purpose  best.  To  obtain  a  group  of  crystals  for  a  mantle-piece 
specimen,  any  rugged  substance  answers  for  a  nucleus :  a  cinder, 
or  a  peach-stone,  are  among  the  best.  The  crystals  may  be  co- 
loured yellow  by  boiling  a  little  saffron  or  turmeric  with  the  alum ; 
and  purple,  by  a  similar  use  of  log-wood:  the  deepness  of  the 
shade,  of  course,  being  regulated  by  the  quantity  used  of  the  dyeing 
material.  Whether  the  alum  be  employed  in  its  simple  state,  or 
any  colouring  matter  be  added,  it  is  requisite  to  filter  the  solution 
through  blotting  paper  before  it  is  evaporated.  The  beautiful 
deep-blue  rhomboidal  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue  vitriol, 
as  it  is  commonly  called,  are  more  elegant  than  those  of  alum, 
and  are  produced  precisely  in  the  same  manner. 

RICE  OR  BUGLE  BASKETS. 

These  baskets  are  made  of  card-board,  and  afterwards  orna- 
mented with  rice.  The  best  shape  to  make  the  basket  is  that  of 
an  inverted  cone  without  a  top,  the  sides  being  cut  into  diamonds: 
line  it  throughout  with  paper,  or  silk,  of  any  agreeable  colour,  and 
gum  grains  of  rice  on  the  intervening  spaces  of  the  card-board. 
Should  the  effect  of  the  rice  appear  monotonous,  vary  it  with 
coloured  beads,  &c.  or  bugles  alone  may  be  employed,  instead  of 
rice.  Baskets  of  this  description  may  also  be  very  elegantly  deco- 
rated with  groupes  of  small  shells,  little  artificial  bouquets,  crystals, 
or  the  fine  feathers  from  the  heads  of  birds  of  beautiful  plumage. 

LAVENDER     FAGOTS. 

For  making  these,  the  lavender  should  be  procured  before  the 
flower  is  blown,  and  used  while  the  stalks  are  fresh  and  green, 
otherwise  they  will  break  in  making  up. 

About  twenty  heads  of  lavender  should  be  placed  evenly  to- 
gether, the  leaves  and  small  buds  that  grow  beneath  the  head 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


501 


having  been  first  removed.  One  end  of  a  narrow  ribbon,  of  any 
bright  colour,  should  be  tied  round  the  whole  tightly,  close  under 
the  heads,  so  as  to  form  a  bow,  and  leaving  the  remainder  of  the 
ribbon  about  a  yard  long.  The  stalks  are  then  to  be  bent  back- 
wards over  the  heads  of  lavender,  and  the  ribbon  being  first 
doubled,  or  folded  over,  to  make  it  narrower,  must  be  wound 
round  the  faggot  spirally;  passing  it,  alternately,  over  two  stalks 
and  under  the  next  two,  until  the  heads  are  covered;  the  end  of 
the  ribbon  is  then  cut  off  and  fastened  in,  among  the  heads,  by 
tying  another  ribbon  in  a  bow  round  the  stalks,  which  should  be 
cut  oft*  about  two  inches  below  the 
last  bow  (Fig.  13.)  A  plain  descrip- 
tion of  lavender  fagot  is  made  by 
simply  tying  the  heads  as  before, 
bending  the  stalks  over,  placing  them 
regularly  round  the  heads,  and  tying 
the  ends  together,  but  omitting  the 
spiral  ribbon  (Fig.  14.)  It  is  usual  to  make  up  a  quantity  of  these 
fagots  with  variously-coloured  ribbons,  and  to  place  them  in  orna- 
mental baskets  of  glass  or  moss. 


MOCK-CHINA  SCENT  JARS. 

Take  a  common  vase,  similar  in  shape  to  one  of  foreign  china, 
or  a  grape  jar,  and  cover  it  entirely  with  widow's-lawn,  which  may 
be  fixed  on  by  paste.  Cut  flowers,  &c.  out  of  chintz  that  has  a 
good  Indian  pattern,  and  ornament  the  jar  with  them,  arranging 
them  tastefully  in  groupes.  Procure  from  a  turner  a  lid  and  stand 
to  match  the  jar,  and  cover  and  ornament  them  precisely  in  the 
same  manner.  The  jar,  cover,  and  stand,  are  then  to  be  var- 
nished by  a  painter. 


FEATHER   SCREENS. 

These  screens  are  composed  of  the  wings  of  birds;  and,  if  the 
plumage  be  selected  with  taste,  are  superior  to  almost  every  other 
description  of  screen. 

The  first  process,  in  forming  the  screen,  is  to  cut,  with  a  sharp 
pair  of  scissors,  through  the  skin  in  the  inside  of  the  wing,  in  the 
direction  of  the  bones.  The  skin  is  then  to  be  turned  carefully 
back  from  die  shoulder  to  the  second  joint ;  but  the  bones  com- 
posing the  part  above  that,  are  so  small,  and  the  skin  adheres  so 


602  THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 

closely  to  them,  that  it  is  necessary  to  detach  them  at  the  first 
joint,  and  remove  them  with  the  flesh.  The  skin  is  then  to  be 
stretched  straight  upon  a  board  with  a 
weight  placed  upon  it.  The  same  process 
must  be  gone  through  with  the  sister  wing. 
When  perfectly  dry,  place  their  straight 
edges  in  close  contact,  and  sew  the  skins, 
as  far  as  the  second  joints,  together.  If 
the  skin  should  be  thin,  it  will  be  requisite 
to  enclose  a  strip  of  card-board,  thin  wood, 
or  wire,  in  the  place  of  the  bones  which 
have  been  taken  out:  these  will  not  only 
keep  the  screen  extended,  but  serve  also 
as  a  firm  substance,  to  which  the  handles  may  be  fixed.  The 
seam,  and  the  place  where  the  handles  are  inserted,  must  be 
concealed  on  both  sides  by  stars  of  gold-paper,  or  bows  of  ribbon ; 
but  the  most  beautiful  and  appropriate  ornaments  for  this  purpose, 
are  circular,  oval,  or  lozenge  groupes  of  feathers  selected  from  the 
head  or  the  breast  of  the  bird  to  which  the  wings  belonged  (Fig.  15.) 

GAUZE    SCREENS. 

These  screens  are  made  of  gauze,  stretched  over  a  frame  of 
wire,  and  ornamented  with  figures,  which  are  usually  cut  out  of 
chintz.  The  handles,  as  well  as  the  shapes,  are  merely  of  wire, 
bent  and  fastened  in  various  modes:  they  may  be  purchased,  at  a 
moderate  price,  from  the  fancy-ornament  sellers.  The  gauze 
must  be  doubled,  stretched  lightly  over  one  side  of  the  wire 
frame,  and  neatly  sewed  at  the  edges,  which  should  be  bound  with 
gold  or  coloured  paper.  The  ornaments,  such  as  flowers,  birds,  &c. 
cut  out  of  chintz,  are  to  be  gummed  on  the  front  of  the  screens; 
but  should  a  difficulty  occur  in  procuring  a  variety  from  chintz,  an 
engraving,  rather  gaudily  coloured,  will  answer  the  purpose.  Arti- 
ficial butterflies,  and  other  insects,  look  well,  if  fastened  to  the 
gauze  by  their  bodies,  with  their  wings  extended.  Flowers,  also, 
gummed  by  their  calyces  and  stems,  with  their  petals  free,  produce 
an  equally  good  effect.  The  handles  are  bound  over  with  ribbon 
and  decorated  with  bows. 

GOLD-THREAD    PURSES  AND   RETICULES. 

The  thread  is  to  be  procured  at  the  gold-lace  shops :  a  small 
loop  is  formed  at  the  end  of  it;  then,  with  a  tambour-needle 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST.  503 

passed  through  that  loop,  the  thread  is  drawn  up  again  into  another 
loop;  and  thus,  in  succession,  until  such  a  length  has  been  woven 
as,  the  two  ends  being  joined,  will  form  the  circumference  of  the 
purse.  The  joining  is  effected  by  passing  the  needle  through  the 
two  end  loops,  and  drawing  the  thread  up  through  both ;  then  five 
loops  are  to  be  formed  on  the  continuation  of  the  thread ;  after 
which,  the  needle  is  passed  through  the  third  loop  from  the  join, 
on  the  completed  circle,  and  the  thread  drawn  through ;  five  more 
loops  are  then  formed  on  the  perfected  round,  as  before,  and  so  on 
in  the  same  manner,  until  the  circle  is  finished.  The  succeeding 
rows  are  formed  by  weaving,  as  before,  five  loops  at  a  time,  and 
then  passing  the  thread  through  the  thread,  or  centre  loop,  of  the 
row  last  finished:  the  rounds  are  still  continued  until  the  desired 
size  is  obtained.  The  bottom  is  completed  by  drawing  the  loops 
together  with  gold  thread,  and  affixing  a  gold-bullion  tassel.  The 
top  is  finished  by  a  straight  row  of  running  loops,  sewn  with  gold 
thread  to  a  spring  clasp.  The  lining  should  be  of  satin,  and  rather 
smaller  than  the  net. 


ARTIFICIAL     FRUITS. 

Artificial  fruit  is  usually  made  of  wax,  cast  in  plaster  of  Paris 
moulds,  and  coloured  after  nature.  As  every  fruit  is,  more  or  less, 
of  a  circular  form,  it  is  impossible  to  take  a  mould  of  it  in  a  single 
piece ;  if  an  apple,  for  instance,  be  cased  in  plaster,  the  mould 
cannot  be  removed  in  an  entire  state;  it  must,  therefore,  be  taken 
in  two  pieces:  and,  if  the  fruit  abound  with  irregularities,  in 
three,  or  more.  It  would  be  impossible  for  us  to  describe  the 
mode  of  making  the  necessary  divisions,  which  must  entirely  be 
governed  by  the  figure  of  the  fruit.  A  little  experience  will  enable 
the  young  artist  to  judge  in  what  manner,  and  in  how  many 
pieces  the  mould  of  a  fruit  can  be  taken.  The  plaster  must  be 
mixed  to  about  the  consistence  of  treacle:  and  if  the  subject  can 
be  taken  in  two  pieces,  having  first  lightly  oiled  its  surface,  one 
half  of  the  fruit  is  to  be  covered  with  the  plaster,  the  edge  of 
which  is  to  be  made  smooth  with  a  knife.  When  the  plaster  is 
nearly  dry,  a  few  notches  are  also  to  be  made  in  the  edges,  into 
which,  when  the  other  part  of  the  fruit  is  covered,  the  plaster 
will  run,  so  as  to  make  the  two  pieces  exactly  fit  each  other. 
The  mould  being  completed  by  laying  the  plaster  on  the  uncovered 
part  of  the  fruit,  it  is  to  be  removed  when  dry,  and  soaked  for  a 
considerable  time  in  cold  water,  the  parts  being  kept  together  in 


504 


THE    ORNAMENTAL    ARTIST. 


their  proper  place  by  binding  round  the  whole  with  string.  The 
wax  having  been  first  kneaded  with  the  hand,  and  then  melted 
to  the  consistency  of  cream,  is  to  be  poured  into  the  mould  at 
the  opening  caused  by  the  stalk  of  the  fruit.  When  sufficiently 
hardened,  cut  the  string  which  binds  the  mould  together;  remove 
the  pieces  with  care,  and  an  exact  model  of  the  fruit  will  be 
obtained.  The  colours  must  be  procured  in  a  finely  powdered 
state,  and  may  be  laid  on  with  the  finger,  except  the  more  delicate 
parts,  which  should  be  touched  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil.  For 
many  fruits,  however,  the  colour  may  be  mixed  with  the  wax, 
and  when  this  is  the  case,  the  powder  is  only  applied  to  give  the 
proper  bloom,  which,  in  many  fruits,  may  be  imitated  with  great 
success.  Should  any  difficulty  occur  in  fixing  the  powder,  hold 
the  wax  model  a  short  distance  from  the  fire,  and  in  a  few  minutes 
the  desired  effect  will  be  produced. 


The  veil  is  drawn  upon  the  Muses'  bower; 

Afar  hath  flown  each  Sylph's  instructive  pen; 
Fair  Science  hath  resign 'd  her  regal  power, 

And  Painting  seeks  her  native  skies  again. 

Unbent  is  Huntress  Dian's  shining  bow; 

Music  hath  ceas'd  to  sound  her  magic  shell, 
Or  gay  Terpsichore  her  grace  to  show  ; 

And  gray-rob'd  Wisdom  totters  to  his  cell. 

But  here  their  various  treasures  are  enshrin'd, 

Or  in  the  moral  or  the  learned  page  ; 
And  oft  the  reader,  to  improve  her  mind, 

May  seek,  by  turns,  the  Muse,  the  Gnome,  or  Sage. 

While  he  who  thus  (perchance  but  too  unskill'd) 
Presumes  to  bring  their  golden  gifts  to  view, — 

Slave  of  the  Lamp,  his  ministry  fulfill'd,— 
Makes  his  Salaam,  and  tenders  his  Adieu  ! 


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